This literature review explores the importance of organic fertilizers as a strategy for sustainable management of organic waste and promotion of organic agriculture. In particular, it aims to establish the link between the production and conversion of organic by-products into bioresources and their integration into organic agriculture. It reviews the various technical processes of converting organic waste into fertilizer. Among the processes examined, composting remains the most widely used because of its technical simplicity and economic profitability. Other processes examined that may be used to recover the mineral elements contained in organic by-products include anaerobic digestion, vermicomposting, solid and liquid fermentation, biochar production. Thus, the various studies examined on the application of these fertilizers reveal that they contribute to a significant improvement in soil fertility while increasing microbial biomass and enzymatic activity, particularly those of urease, phosphatase and dehydrogenase. In addition, these fertilizers are responsible for the increase of the yield rate that can exceed 50% in comparison with untreated soil and the nutritive value of crops. Despite multiple advantages, the valorization of organic waste for agricultural purposes still requires rigorous management, standardization and reasoned integration.
Soil structural stability is a key determinant of erosion resistance, environmental quality, and sustainable land use in coastal ecosystems. This study assessed the structural vulnerability and environmental quality of selected erosion-prone coastal soils in Bayelsa State, Nigeria, using an integrated multi-index evaluation approach. Soil samples (0–20 cm) were obtained from fifteen riverine communities located within Yenagoa, Ogbia, and Southern Ijaw Local Government Areas. Soil structural quality was assessed using dry-stable aggregates (DSA), water-stable aggregates (WSA), mean weight diameter (MWD), geometric mean diameter (GMD), potential structural deformation index (PSDI), water stability index (WSI), aggregate stability ratio (ASR), and aggregate stability index (ASI). The evaluated indices were subsequently integrated into an Environmental Quality Index (EQI) to enable comparison among the study locations. The results revealed considerable spatial variability in soil structural properties across the study locations. DSA and WSA values ranged from 33.08 to 63.30 % and from 31.61 to 43.09%, respectively, suggesting moderate susceptibility to structural degradation and water erosion. The wet mean weight diameter (MWDw) and PSDI values suggested varying degrees of vulnerability to slaking and structural deformation under intense rainfall conditions. EQI ranking identified Tariladei, Ikpetiama, and Agbura as structurally resilient soils, whereas Amassoma, Igeibiri, and Angiama were more susceptible to degradation. The findings demonstrate that the multi-index approach is effective for evaluating soil structural condition and prioritizing conservation interventions in the dynamic coastal environments of the Niger Delta.
Agriculture supports rural livelihoods and food security in developing regions, while pulse-based farming contributes substantially to household nutrition, income and soil fertility. However, the adoption of improved pulse production practices and effective resource management among smallholder farmers are often shaped by socio-economic and communication-related factors. This study examined the determinants of knowledge, adoption, and resource management behaviour among pulse farmers in Nayagarh district, Odisha. Primary data were collected from 256 pulse farmers selected through proportionate random sampling from eight villages across four blocks. Data were gathered using a structured interview schedule and analysed using Pearson’s correlation, canonical correlation and multiple linear regression. The findings revealed that education, annual family income, savings, cosmopoliteness and sources of information were important factors associated with farmers’ knowledge and adoption behaviour. Adoption was significantly influenced by education, annual family income, savings, housing pattern, landholding, source of income and sources of information. Resource management behaviour was influenced by age, education, housing pattern, social participation and cosmopoliteness. The study concludes that improving pulse-based farming systems requires more than technology dissemination; it demands farmer-oriented training, credible information delivery, financial support and institutional facilitation to strengthen adoption and resource management among smallholder pulse farmers.
This study investigated the feasibility of using greywater from a school or treated wastewater from the Rustamiya wastewater treatment plant for irrigating Moringa oleifera plants and its effects on growth and some soil properties, including electrical conductivity, soil pH, and heavy metal content in the soil and plants. The experiment consisted of four treatments using a randomized complete block design (RCBD). The first treatment served as the control, irrigating the plants with river water; the second with greywater; the third with wastewater; and the fourth with a mixture of greywater and wastewater. The experiment lasted for 180 days. The results indicated statistically significant differences in the length and diameter of Moringa oleifera plants when using wastewater mixed with greywater compared to the other irrigation treatments. Statistically significant differences were observed in the electrical conductivity of soil paste derived from soils irrigated with a mixture of wastewater and greywater. The findings indicated an elevation in the height and diameter of Moringa seedlings, alongside a rise in heavy metal concentrations in both the soil and the plants, subsequent to watering with wastewater or the incorporation of greywater. Nevertheless, the majority of micronutrients and minerals stayed below permissible thresholds and did not surpass dangerous levels for the soil and vegetation.
This study evaluated the responses of Thin-tailed lambs (TTL) and Texel crossbred lambs (TCL) to different feeding levels in terms of protein metabolism, rumen fermentation, growth performance, and body composition. A total of 20 male growing lambs aged four months were used, consisting of TTL (9.56 ± 0.97 kg) and TCL (15.30 ± 2.84 kg). Lambs were individually housed and fed a complete pelleted diet containing 14.42% crude protein and 70.03% total digestible nutrients (TDN). The experiment used a nested completely randomized design with feeding levels of 4% and 5.5% body weight within each breed group. Texel crossbred lambs had higher dry matter intake, nutrient digestibility, protein retention, and microbial protein synthesis than thin-tailed lambs (P<0.05). Increasing the feeding level increased nutrient intake (P<0.05), but did not improve protein utilization efficiency (P>0.05). Higher feeding levels also reduced rumen pH and increased blood urea concentration after feeding (P<0.05). Body composition analysis showed greater total body water and body protein content in TCL than in TTL (P<0.05), whereas the relative proportions of body components were similar among treatments (P>0.05). Overall, breed exerted a greater influence than feeding level on protein utilization, growth performance, and body composition in lambs.
Cucumber is cultivated extensively in greenhouses and open fields worldwide, and is a key crop for greenhouse farmers in Iraq. This study aimed to analyze energy consumption and apply an Artificial neural network model (ANN) to predict the yield of three cucumber varieties: NEDDAL F1, SUPER HERO F1, and TOP GREEN F1, in Nineveh Governorate. The experiment was conducted in 18 greenhouses, and data collected included the types of equipment used in cucumber cultivation, working hours, fuel, number of workers, agricultural practices, fertilization methods, and pest control. The results showed that the total energy consumption for cucumber cultivation was 6251.88, 6201.88, and 6251.88 MJ house-1, while the energy output was 4400, 5326.3272, and 5014.08 MJ house-1 for the three varieties, respectively. Fertilizer and electricity consumption are key variables in cucumber cultivation, representing the highest energy inputs at 42% and 20%, respectively. The results showed that a neural network model is useful in predicting the energy output of three cucumber varieties, the minimum MSE and the highest R-value of model calibration were obtained by combining the LM training, the 10 and 12 of a hidden neuron, using the 25-10-1, 25-12-1, and 25-10-1 ANN architectures with LM training and a Log-sigmoid transfer function in NEDDAL F1, SUPER HERO F1, and TOP GREEN F1, respectively. The study demonstrated that the trained models achieved the lowest error rate, indicating the experimental model's ability to predict cucumber yield in Nineveh Governorate.
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn., commonly known as goosegrass, is a widely distributed weed species in the Poaceae family. Its success as an agricultural weed is associated with its prolific seed production, strong competitiveness with cultivated crops, extended germination period, and ability to thrive under a wide range of environmental conditions. This study investigated reproductive and genetic variation among E. indica populations collected from different habitats. A total of 45 mature plants were sampled from three habitat types and evaluated based on seven reproductive morphological characteristics. Genetic diversity was examined using the psbA–trnH intergenic spacer (IGS) region, with 18 representative samples selected for sequencing. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed among habitats for spike length, peduncle length, and seed length, suggesting the influence of environmental conditions and adaptive responses. Roadside populations exhibited shorter spike and peduncle lengths, whereas farm and wasteland populations produced relatively larger reproductive structures, indicating morphological responses to habitat disturbance intensities. Analysis of the psbA–trnH sequences revealed low genetic variation, with only two haplotypes identified among the samples. Similarly, limited polymorphism was detected among Eleusine species, including E. indica, E. multiflora, and E. coracana, indicating a high degree of genetic similarity and conservation within the genus. The findings indicate low reproductive variation and low genetic diversity of E. indica across the three habitats, as revealed by the psbA–trnH IGS marker, might be due to the close genetic relationship among populations and the limited resolution of this chloroplast marker in detecting intraspecific variation.
This literature review explores the importance of organic fertilizers as a strategy for sustainable management of organic waste and promotion of organic agriculture. In particular, it aims to establish the link between the production and conversion of organic by-products into bioresources and their integration into organic agriculture. It reviews the various technical processes of converting organic waste into fertilizer. Among the processes examined, composting remains the most widely used because of its technical simplicity and economic profitability. Other processes examined that may be used to recover the mineral elements contained in organic by-products include anaerobic digestion, vermicomposting, solid and liquid fermentation, biochar production. Thus, the various studies examined on the application of these fertilizers reveal that they contribute to a significant improvement in soil fertility while increasing microbial biomass and enzymatic activity, particularly those of urease, phosphatase and dehydrogenase. In addition, these fertilizers are responsible for the increase of the yield rate that can exceed 50% in comparison with untreated soil and the nutritive value of crops. Despite multiple advantages, the valorization of organic waste for agricultural purposes still requires rigorous management, standardization and reasoned integration.
Root-associated decline, suspected to involve Phytophthora species, is considered one of the major constraints to duku (Lansium domesticum Corr.) production in Indonesia. Although the disease primarily affects roots and basal stem tissues, prolonged stress may also influence physiological processes in leaves. This study examined whether several leaf biochemical parameters associated with antioxidant and phenylpropanoid metabolism could differentiate healthy and diseased duku trees under orchard conditions. Guaiacol-reactive POD-like oxidative activity, total flavonoid content, and tannin levels were analyzed in leaf samples collected from healthy and diseased trees using spectrophotometric methods. Statistical analyses showed no significant differences between the two health categories for all measured parameters (p > 0.05). Health categories were defined based on field-observed root-associated decline symptoms, and pathogen identity was not directly confirmed in the present study. Considerable overlap among individual samples was also observed. The POD-related measurement should be interpreted as an exploratory guaiacol-reactive oxidative indicator rather than as a direct estimate of native POD enzyme activity. The results suggest that leaf biochemical responses remained relatively stable despite prolonged root-associated stress. Under field conditions, these parameters were not sufficiently sensitive to distinguish between healthy and diseased trees when measured at a single sampling period. The findings suggest phenylpropanoid-related compounds in duku leaves mainly reflect long-term physiological adjustment rather than short-term inducible defense responses. Consequently, single-time-point biochemical measurements in leaves have limited value for diagnosing prolonged root-associated decline in perennial fruit trees.
This study was conducted to investigate the feasibility of using wood of (Dalbergia sissoo, Albizia lebbeck, Callistemon viminalis, Populus nigra, Eucalyptus microtheca, Euclyptus camaldulensis, Paulownia tomentosa, Pinus brutia, Thuja Orientalis, Fagus orientalis, Populus euphratica and Platanus oreinatlis) in the production of compressed charcoal. two types of locally produced materials were used as binding materials (potato starch and wheat flour) with mixing ratios of (10:90) and (20:80) to the charcoal particles. Compressed density g/cm3, horizontal expansion ratio %, durability, mass loss ratio %, Moisture content %, ash%, Volatile matter % and calorific value Cal./g. as a physical and combustion properties were studied. Density values varied for the studied charcoal briquettes type between (0.969 – 1.090)g/cm3, The highest value for horizontal expansion of molds was recorded in types manufactured from wood Fagus orientalis As it reached 2.772%, Most briquettes type showed good durability and a low loss rate ranging between (1.31 – 1.94)%, Moisture content and ash content values ranged between (5.32-8.22)% and (4.5-7.1)% respectively, The values of volatile matters were within the ranges specified in the standard specifications, except for two types. (Pinus brutia and Thuja Orientalis) Which amounted to (28.42 and 31.85) % respectively, the highest calorific value was obtained when using wood from both Dalbergia sissoo and Euclyptus camaldulensis as it reached to (7075 and 7065) cal./g. Potato starch showed potential for improving the properties of the produced compressed charcoal compared to wheat flour. Increasing the binder ratio from 10% to 20% improved all the studied properties.
The study aims to determine the optimal concentration of nano-microelements in a two-year (2021–2023) field experiment that maximizes crop yield and quality, as well as to understand the interactions between individual barley varieties (‘Buraq’, ‘Aba 99’, and ‘Aba 265’) and the applied concentrations of nano-microelements. This study also aims to develop variety-specific nano-fertilization protocols for sustainable barley production. A randomized complete block design with three replications was implemented as a split-plot design. Treatments consisted of foliar application of nano-micronutrient fertilizers containing B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Mo at 0 (control), 1 g L⁻¹, and 2 g L⁻¹. Results showed that the number of spikes m⁻², the number of grains per spike, and the grain yield of each cultivar increased significantly with treatments. The 2 g L⁻¹ treatment produced the largest increase in yield (from 3.7 to 4.2 t ha⁻¹ for ‘Buraq’; from 4.2 to 4.9 t ha⁻¹ for ‘Aba 99’; and from 4.7 to 5.6 t ha⁻¹ for ‘Aba 265’). Genotypic differences were also observed; ‘Aba 265’ consistently produced the greatest number of spikes per unit area and the highest final yield. These findings demonstrate how the use of both application rates of the foliar nano-micronutrients significantly improves nutrient use efficiency and overall productivity of barley grown under low soil micronutrient supply.
This study aimed to examine ferula dietary supplements on broilers productive performance and physiological parameters under stocking density and heat stress. A total of 480 one-day-old chicks were split up into nine treatments, each with four replicates. The experimental treatments included three control negative and positive treatments of both stocking densities: the control (base diet). Three levels of ferula powder (4, 8, and 12 g/kg of diet) were used for both stocking densities. The temperature was raised to 4°C over the typical range that birds require to survive. The temperature was set at 22°C and then increased to 26°C for 24 hours each day, and they were given constant light for 20 days of rearing without a break. In every phase, the treatment's LBW and BWG did not differ significantly from the negative control. Feed intake was significantly higher in the negative control group than in the positive control groups (8 g ferula/kg feed ) and(12 g ferula/kg feed ). FCR did not change compared to the control group. At 35 days of rearing, the low- density chicks' body weight, weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio are significantly higher due to stocking density than the high-density chicks. Significantly raises the positive control group's mortality rate when compared to the negative control group. There is a notable increase in the production index in the negative control group as compared to the positive control group and T2. There was a significant rise in antioxidant (GPX) in negative controls. Eventually, (MDA), there are notable improvements in positive control compared to treatments.
The Naleh fish, Barbonymus sp., is a native freshwater fish in Aceh province, Indonesia, and considered one of the popular fish species for food and ornamental purposes. Induced breeding technology is crucial for the success for any fish farming practices, but currently, the effective hormone treatment and the induced breeding and seed production methods for Naleh fish is unknown. Therefore, the present study aims to determine the suitable hormone for effective induced breeding of Naleh fish. The study was conducted in January 2025 in Community Fish Breeding Center of Meunasah Krueng Village, Nagan Raya District, Aceh Province, Indonesia. The Completely Randomized Design method with 3 treatments and 5 replications for each hormone was tested. Three types of commercial available hormones, namely Ovaprim, Ovaspec, and HCG, were evaluated. The results show that the types of hormones tested significantly affected latency time, fertilization rate, and survival rate (p<0.05) but did not significantly affect hatching rate and larval malformation rate (p>0.05). The highest reproductive parameters performance were found in the Ovaprim induced fish groups. Therefore, it was concluded that Ovaprim hormone is the suitable hormone for the effective induction spawning and seed production of Naleh fish.
The results of the study showed that the alcoholic extract of Nerium oleander leaves was superior, recording the highest Mortality rate of 34.14%, which did not significantly differ from the average Mortality rate of Melia azedarach extract, which amounted to 33.05%. Meanwhile, the aqueous extract of Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaves achieved the lowest Mortality rate of 15.55%. The interaction effect between the extract and the concentration used also had a significant impact, as the alcoholic extract of Nerium oleander achieved the highest Mortality rate of 65.56% at a concentration of 3.5%. Also, regarding the interaction effect between the extracts studied and the treatment time, we found that the alcoholic extract of Nerium oleander leaves was more effective, achieving a Mortality rate of 43.33% after 72 hours of treatment. As for the interaction effect between the concentrations used and the time used on the Mortality rate, the concentration achieved 3.5% after 72 hours. The highest mortality rate was 66.66% for the treatment, while the lowest mortality rate was at a concentration of 1.5% after 24 hours of treatment. Therefore, the results confirmed that the alcoholic extract of Nerium oleander leaves is effective and has a significant impact on the mortality rate of the southern cowpea beetle, as it is considered an environmentally friendly natural pesticide.
Different factors linked to the human activities of the territory can have an impact on the degradation of the forest, like the size of the properties and the proximity of roads, towns, and villages. They determine forestry and agricultural practices, accessibility (for the exploitation of ligneous resources in forestry), and the diffusion of fire phenomena. In this article, we will be interested in the spatial convergence of indicators on the distribution of forest fires at the scale of Paragominas municipality (Eastern Brazil). The spatial analysis will lead us to evaluate the role of explanatory factors in the distribution of fires at the municipal level. whether the size of agricultural or forest properties, distance to paved roads, and distance to towns and villages matter in forest fire activities.
The seeds of two Atriplex species (Atriplex Nummlaria L. Canescens L.) were collected from the Field Crops Department/College of Agriculture and Forestry/University of Mosul, Nineveh, Iraq. These varieties are used in combating drought and pastoral plants within an agricultural program within the AL-Hather area in Nineveh Governorate. The study aimed to improve the germination rate in different ways before planting. The experiment was carried out on 400 seeds, which were divided into five groups treated before planting with the following treatments (soaking with regular water for 24 hours, with boiling water for one hour, with sulfuric acid at a concentration of 5% for one second, mechanical scratching, as well as a comparison treatment). Experiment results showed that soaking with boiling water impeded and reduced germination by 100% for two species. The acid treatment increased the germination rate of (Atriplex Canescens L.) by 72%. The effect of the other treatments was insignificant compared with the treatment control, while the (Atriplex Canescens L.) germination rate increased to 67% for soaking with plain water treatment.
The study aims to assess the impact of aggregate economic shocks on the Iraqi economy as a whole, and on the agricultural sector in particular, by examining the effects of selected macroeconomic variables on GDP and subsequently on agricultural output. This is achieved through the use of the two-stage least squares (2SLS) method. The results of the long-term relationship estimation indicate that all economic variables included in the study have statistically significant effects on GDP through co-integration. Among these, certain variables exhibit a more pronounced influence, as revealed by the impulse response analysis, which shows that their effects persist over an extended period, Specifically, the impact of oil prices becomes evident in the third year, taxes in the second year, the exchange rate in the third year, inflation in the second year, and the tax rate in the fourth year. These findings demonstrate that macroeconomic shocks significantly affect GDP, and the responses of GDP to these macro variables are positively and statistically significant. Based on these outcomes, the study recommends greater attention to international economic changes that influence the agricultural sector. It also advocates for the development of appropriate agricultural policies and the adoption of scientific.
This study aimed to simulate the gastrointestinal survival of Lactobacillus plantarum after microencapsulation using the emulsification–spray drying technique with sodium alginate as the wall material. The primary objective was to improve bacterial viability and preserve metabolic activity in simulated gastric and intestinal conditions. The structural and functional characterizations of the produced microcapsules were done through evaluating integrity and performance. FESEM revealed spherical, smooth, and homogeneous particles, while transmission electron microscopy disclosed the homogeneous internal distribution of L. plantarum cells within an alginate matrix; energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy indicated a key elemental component of sodium alginate, and light microscopy provided additional confirmation of particle homogeneity and surface integrity. It was shown that encapsulated cells retain acid production and fermentation capabilities, which means metabolic activity is maintained. Under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, encapsulated L. plantarum exhibited notably higher survival compared to free cells, hence confirming the protective role played by sodium alginate microcapsules. The findings suggest that this emulsification-spray drying with sodium alginate is a highly effective and scalable method of probiotic encapsulation with high potential for use in functional food formulations and controlled probiotic delivery systems.
An investigation was carried out to determine the impact of feeding frequency (FF) and Nano selenium (Na-S) drenching on milk yield and its ingredients and biochemical traits in Awassi ewes' blood. Sixteen Awassi ewes (52.28±1.37 kg body weight) aged 3–4 years with newborn lambs (n = 4) were randomly divided into one of the four experimental groups (n = 4). Ewes in the 1st and 2nd groups were fed the basal ration of two meals (2M) daily and drenched with Nano selenium (Na-S) (2 and 4 mg daily), respectively. While the 3rd and 4th groups, were fed the basal ration three meals (3M) daily and received Na-S (2 and 4 mg daily) orally. Milk yield, fat%, and protein% increased significantly in 2M groups at most weeks, consistent with the significant increase in milk yield of ewes receiving 4 mg of Na-S. In regard to the interaction between FF and Na-S, 2M and 4 Na-S recorded a significant increase in milk yield at most weeks of the study. Feeding ewes 2M daily caused a significant increase in TP, ALB, GLO, GLU, and cholesterol levels; no effects showed for N-Se in blood serum at the 1st month of the study. Finley, CHO level increased significantly in the 2M and 2 Na-S ewe groups, while TRI level decreased significantly (P≤0.05) in the blood serum of the 2M and 2 Na-S groups. In general, feeding systems and Nano-selenium cause an increase in milk yield and fat percentage of Awassi ewes.
The experiment was conducted in the nursery of the Department of Forest Science/ University of Mosul/Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry/ during the period from April to December 2024 to study the impact of three watering periods (1 day , 3 days,5 days) and three concentrations of salicylic acid (zero, 200, 400) mg. Seedling -1 in some of the phenotypic and physiological qualities of Pinus brutia Seedlings. The results showed that watering every(1) day had a significant impact on most of the vegetative and physiological growth qualities. As for the watering period every(5) days, it gave the highest significant increase in the percentage of proline. As for the effect of salicylic acid, the results showed that the concentration of (400) mg.Seedling-1 had a significant effect on longitudinal Height seedling, leaf area, total chlorophyll and carbohydrates, while the concentration was (200)mg.L-1 has a significant impact on the diameter of the leg, while the concentration (200 and 400)mg.L-1 was given Significant increase in the quality of proline for bilateral interference between both watering periods and salicylic acid. The results showed that watering every (1) day and spraying with salicylic acid at a concentration of (400) mg.Seedling-1 has given the highest rates in most of the studied qualities, and the overlap between the watering period every 5 days and salicylic acid in concentrations of 200 and 400 mg.L-1 in the leaf content of proline.
