The purpose of this article is to provide general education teachers with specific information regarding collaborative roles and responsibilities of several team members involved in the education of students with disabilities. The need for collaborative working relationships within our schools has increased as the majority of students with disabilities are currently being educated in general education classrooms. Understanding the individual roles, responsibilities, and expertise of all professionals will create a better learning environment. The authors provide specific examples of student characteristics and questions that may assist in structuring effective conversations among team members to ensure success in the classroom for students with disabilities. ********** Collaboration is not simply two or more people working together, but more importantly it is how two or more people can effectively work towards a shared goal (Friend & Bursuck, 2009). Currently, students with disabilities are being served as much as possible in the general education setting, therefore it is essential that general educators work collaboratively and seek out other team members' perspectives and expertise. According to the National Center for Statistical Information, approximately 13% of all students age 3-21 years receive special education services. Of those 13% of students receiving special education services, over half (54%) spend the majority of their school day (80%) in the general education classroom (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). Students benefit from educators seeking assistance and guidance from one other to provide a supportive learning environment for students with disabilities within the general education curriculum. When educating students with disabilities, there are many ways to collaborate and even more reasons why collaboration should include a variety of professionals. All individuals can benefit from different experiential and disciplinary perspectives (Millward & Jeffries, 2001). As professionals learn from one another, educators can provide all students with the most engaging and successful educational experience. Moreover, it is essential to deepen our understanding of other professionals' roles and how to work together to create an effective learning environment for all as it relates to educating students with disabilities. Students with disabilities have Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) that are implemented by a team of stakeholders who are required to meet at least once a year, so there is a starting point for establishing positive relationships, as everyone on the team (i.e., general educators, special educators, administrators, speech-language pathologists, school psychologists, parents, etc.) meets to discuss options for programmatic and placement decisions, effective adaptations/accommodations and evaluation of student progress. Although there are initial conversations amongst team members (at the IEP meeting), it is essential for on-going collaborative efforts between all IEP members to ensure the IEP goals are being addressed. It is important to remember that parents are an integral part of the process. As parents contribute extensive knowledge about their children, it is important for educators to collaborate with parents as well, which is vital to student success in the classroom (Sileo & Prater, 2012). The IEP meeting should not be the one and only time of the year in which collaboration exists, but a starting point for an ongoing relationship. Each team member must be responsible and held accountable for continuing these conversations and problem-solving techniques on a day-to-day basis, so continued support can be provided to students within the general education curriculum. Without continued support from all team members, it is difficult to ensure success for students. The more communication and teamwork that exists between members, the better the outcomes for students with disabilities; collaboration is no longer an option, but rather a fundamental component of effective instruction. …
The authors in this study examined the client satisfaction of chronically disruptive students and their families (clients) following a mandatory alternative school assignment. Specifically, they looked at the satisfaction of the involved families and their responses recorded through three surveys completed at exit interviews during the 1999-2000 school year (N = 189). The literature related to client satisfaction is mixed; typically patterns emerge in the literature of either very high or very low opinions. Due to the mandatory nature of the alternative school assignment, client satisfaction in this study could be predicted to be low. But given the increased level of engagement the clients (both the student and family) surveyed reported high levels of client satisfaction, giving greater expectations of graduating from high school following their alternative school placement and citing better school performance from receiving assistance during the program. The findings from this study could help to modify or further develop social work interventions in the alternative school setting and could increase the use of client satisfaction surveys with these programs. Key Words: chronically disruptive students, client satisfaction, mandatory alternative schools ********** Client satisfaction is an emerging topic of interest in social work practice. The application of client satisfaction surveys in social work is rooted in the marketing industry as a measure of a business's worth to its clients. With increasing choice in providers, agencies and organizations may feel positive client satisfaction increases their competitive potential. Although client satisfaction studies cannot prove a program's effectiveness there is at least a suggestion that positive client satisfaction increases their competitive potential, as the information derived from such surveys is better than no information. Additionally, the perceived usefulness of a program may influence continued support and funding. Rose, Wykes, Doran, Sporle, and Bogner (2008) provided three compelling reasons to conduct satisfaction studies: First, if satisfaction studies are not conducted, then there is no organized or systematic means for learning about clients' perceptions. Second, if the ratings tend to come back relatively high it is reassuring that there are no hidden or obscure problems. Third, if ratings come back with clients reporting below 75 percent satisfaction, then that further investigation is required to determine the source of dissatisfaction. Despite the inability of client satisfaction surveys to prove program's effectiveness, many people have begun to emphasize the importance of measuring client satisfaction. In the current climate of evidence-based practice, client satisfaction assessment is an appealing, although somewhat subjective method of monitoring programs and practice. Client satisfaction surveys are easy to administer, inexpensive, and efficient. Although client satisfaction surveys are routinely used as the first line of evaluation, they may have certain biases. For example, a number of studies indicate that levels of high client satisfaction may support the premise that only the higher functioning and more satisfied client will report in these surveys (McMurtry & Hudson, 2000; Ribner & Knei-Paz, 2002; Trotter, 2008). Other studies suggest that the client is influenced by the social desirability of the instrument and that such a measurement tool may produce biased or unusually high levels of client satisfaction (Fischer & Valley, 2000; Harris, Poertner, & Joe, 2000; Turner, 1996; Carr, Copeland, Koeske, & Greeno, 2004; Walsh & Lord, 2004). Clients could also be pleased to be terminating or completing the program thereby creating a euphoric effect, often referred to as a halo effect, thereby creating a greater report of satisfaction (Barker, 2003). Furthermore, staff, environment or program curriculum can influence client comments (Peak & Sinclair, 2002). …
With the advent of rapidly emerging technologies, researchers need to be cognizant of developments and applications in the area of social media as a topic of investigatory interest. To date, scholarly research on the topic of Facebook, a ubiquitous social media site, is rather extensive. This study on Facebook, using a bibliographic content analysis methodology of PsycINFO, found that instructional applications, user characteristics, health management, and social dynamics were emphasized by researchers. Interestingly, topics of high visibility in the mass media (e.g., privacy, self-disclosure, legal issues) are not areas of focus in scholarly investigations. Future studies should examine comparative analyses across interdisciplinary database files. ********** Social networking websites have become a ubiquitous feature of modern life, particularly since the meteoric rise of Facebook (Shih, 2009; Wittkower, 2010). Indeed, websites like Facebook facilitate social presence, encourage social feedback, and enhance personal inter-connectivity (Cheung, Chiu, & Lee, 2011). Despite the fact that Facebook is a recent social phenomenon and business enterprise, scholarly research on this specific social networking website has proliferated at an exceptional pace over the past 5 years. Thus, it appears worthwhile to examine the cumulative scholarly literature on Facebook and determine the major areas that researchers are emphasizing in their investigatory efforts. One approach is to gauge evolving research trends in the psychological literature via PsycINFO, both general and specific (e.g., Casio & Aguinis, 2008). To that end, the current study reports the findings of a qualitative bibliographic analysis of the extent literature in the social and behavioral sciences on prior research conducted on the topic of Facebook. Method The examination of research trends in the literature has served as a useful and informative exercise in addressing the popularity or shifts in attention on a host of topics of interest to both practitioners and researchers. A keyword search of the term 'Facebook' was performed in the scholarly database PsycINFO, on November 15,2011. This bibliographic file is considered a major scholarly and academic database (see Piotrowski, 2007). Only articles and reference documents that were designated 'scholarly' sources were retained for further analyses (n= 346 citations). Based on the abstract of the noted reference, the author tagged the reference with a descriptor (e.g., security, self-disclosure, communication theory, politics, organizational, health management, user profile) that best represented that main topical focus of the research. A frequency tally, across the main categories, was maintained and then tabulated for frequency counts on each descriptive category. Results and Discussion The current bibliographic citation analysis indicates that a sizeable minority (about 33%) of the literature on the topic of Facebook is general in scope, or reports on esoteric issues. However, it appears that there is much specific emphasis on instructional and teaching applications related to Facebook (see Table 1). Moreover, researchers have an avid interest in personality factors (Ryan & Xenos, 2011), particularly in reference to self-professed 'profile'. There also seems to be much focus in the use of Facebook as a medium in managing health maintenance regimens and treatment protocols. …
There, undoubtedly, will be a flurry of research activity in the 'Superstorm' Sandy impact area on a myriad of disaster-related topics, across academic disciplines. This study, based on a content analysis procedure, identified key articles on hurricanes based on the extant literature indexed in the database PsycINFO. Of the 1,408 references identified, 1000 were articles. The author developed a bibliography of 61 key citations to articles, categorized across select topical areas, based on issues central to investigatory efforts of researchers and policymakers in the Hurricane Sandy impact zone. ********** The field of disaster studies has grown at an exponential pace over the past 30 years and, accordingly, the knowledge base of the field is presently quite voluminous (Rodriguez et al., 2007)). However, research on the human impact of hurricanes is a more recent phenomenon in the social sciences. Hurricane Katrina, in 2005, spurred on exponential growth in investigatory disaster research across all the social sciences. For a perspective, a keyword search for the term Hurricane in the database PsycINFO in 1985 yielded just 10 hits; today, this search would identify over 1,400 reference citations. Current Study Hurricane Sandy (October 30, 2012), a category 1 'super' storm, produced untold destruction on the U.S. east coast, particularly New Jersey and greater New York City coastal areas. The purpose of this article is to provide a bibliography of key peer-reviewed research studies on the human, social, health, organizational, and policy aspects of hurricanes. Such research references provide a concise listing of highly-relevant articles for researchers, professional practitioners, and policymakers in the Hurricane Sandy impact areas. To that end, the database PsycINFO was searched as this file is considered the premier bibliographic source for literature in the behavioral and social sciences. Moreover, PsycINFO indexes periodicals in the social, health-related, and policy fields. The author conducted a keyword (i.e., All Fields) search, inputting the term Hurricane, on March 10, 2013. This operation yielded 1,410 citations, of which 1000 were journal articles that appear in peer-reviewed periodicals. These 1000 references were then reviewed for their saliency as a robust, major reference (the intent was to select articles that were both well-researched and informative). Thus, the articles that appeared to be most helpful and useful to researchers, practitioners, and policymakers were selected for inclusion. A typology of 13 focus areas served as a template for categorization. Table 1 shows the reference citations to the 61 articles across these typologies. These results reflect literature mainly in social sciences; obviously, bibliometric analyses of medical or business scholarly databases would identify adjutant studies in these areas. Conclusions Bibliometric research, based on a content analysis of the extant literature, can serve a pedagogic function in that key references on a specific issue can be presented in a typological framework. The current analysis provides both scholars and policymakers a research compendium of articles that address major concerns in dealing with the individual, social, and organizational aspects of the impact of hurricanes on a populated region. In addition, the bibliography includes literature on the governmental response to recent hurricanes (see Piotrowski 2006; Piotrowski & Armstrong, 1998). At the same time, this study complements recent interest in how informetrics informs disaster science (Liu et al., 2012; Magnone, 2012). Future studies using content analysis methods applied to books on natural disasters could identify research areas of neglect in the field. References Liu, X., Zhan, F.B., Hong, S., Niu, B., & Liu,Y. (2012). A bibliometric study of earthquake research: 1900-2010. …
The issues of premodern, modern, and postmodern can often confuse the social scientists because so much is drawn from modernism as the foundation of the social methodologies. Briefly, the author would like to differentiate the three modernism philosophies and indicate how a coalition of the three may apply to social sciences. Discussion Premodernism In western societies, an anthropomorphic god creates humans and orders society. The basic source of information is revelation. Humans are not rational. Angels and/or Demonic creatures guide people. The church is the major source of authority. History is cyclic. There is a reason for everything. Premodernism is the dominant thought of most of the world's population. Today, most are nondemocracies, but democracies have large populations among fundamentalists of many world religions. At the time of this writing, fundamentalism is a strong viable force in American politics. (www.4truth.net) Modernism Around 1650, critics of the social order looked to natural phenomena to explain human behavior. Reason, ethics, and empiricism prevailed. Humans are rational and can make choices. History is an ongoing march toward progress. God is viewed by theologians by higher criticism. Holy books are viewed in terms of information, revelation, and metaphor. Nontheisim is also introduced. Modernism is still alive, but its descent began in the 1950's. Modernism is still the core of western thought and prevails in corporate, scientific, and academic areas. Postmodernism After some of the most modern educated nations turned to Stalinism and Nazism. a reassessment of humans emerged. Humans are other than-rational. Information comes from multiple sources. Theisms and Non-Theisms of many varieties are honored. Overly rational, predictive thought can be flawed by chaotic butterflies, late modern black swans, modern multicollinearity. We create metanarratives to describe societies. Hybrid philosophies that even contain conundrums and contradictions are tolerated. Arbitrary numbering systems are questioned. Capitalism appears to fit the best with various societies. However, although all have market economies, some are socialist, theocractic, or military oriented capitalisms. Thus neo-socialists are really capitalists. History is not necessarily progress, but change. We can use partial deconstruction to evaluate social constructions of reality. We can endorse some facets of premodernism. Lyon (1999) notes, my own sympathies lie in a complex interaction between the Premodern, Modern, and Postmodern.) Religion is non-literal and personal, combining pre-modern , modern and post modern. The holy texts are ancient, but the interpretation is contemporary. It is critical theology. Or, it is closure in a chaotic world. The awesomeness of the material and spiritual world is rediscovered. (Rasor, 2003) Trimodernism and the Social Sciences The author suggests that the three can be useful in the social methodologies or social sciences. If you will, here are the ways: Triangulation. Using numerous research strategies that are quantitative (experimental & cross sectional) and qualitatative (participant observation & case study) we can embrace all three philosophies. …
Pupils need to experience a variety of kinds of literature in the social studies, as it relates to the ongoing unit of study. This is necessary in order that individual differences are provided for in the classroom. Learners differ from each other in interests, purposes, and abilities in reading. Background information for achievement in the ensuing unit must be possessed by each pupil so that new learnings may be understood. Reading social studies subject matter should taught so that it is beneficial to pupils across the curriculum. Thus, useful content and skills in reading transfer to other subject matter areas. Reading is an important skill to emphasize in the curriculum. ********** Developing Abilities in Reading Social Studies Content Ausubel (1958) stressed the saliency of pupils possessing background subject matter to benefit from the new content to be taught. Thus, he advocated the use of advanced organizers. Directly related to the ensuing literary content, the advance organizer provided brief background information to prepare learners for comprehending new subject matter. This would sequence new subject matter with the old and improve pupil understanding of major facts, concepts, and generalizations. Ausubel believed that pupils having adequate background information before pursuing new knowledge was a major factor in learning. A seamless preparation to understand the ensuing is necessary and makes for quality teaching. Second, learners must attach meaning to ongoing reading experiences. Literature becomes meaningless unless it possesses depth and breadth of understanding. A major problem in reading might well relate to vocabulary difficulties. If pupils do not attach meaning to vocabulary contained in the reading selection, the pupil might be turned off from the selection being read. Here, the literature teacher has the responsibilities of assisting pupils in vocabulary development. Thus, in silent reading, unknown words may be pronounced correctly immediately as the learner raises his/her hand for assistance. As the pupil continues silent reading, clarity of word meaning may possess meaning. The learner may also ask the teacher for word meanings in silent reading as the need arises. Fluency in reading is salient! The glossary and appropriate grade level dictionary are additional resources (See Tichman, 2008). Third, when using the basal textbook, the teacher may print the words neatly for all to see on the chalkboard/white board. The teacher points to each word as it is being pronounced clearly and correctly. The word should also be used in a meaningful sentence. This total procedure might well provide background information for reading. A purpose or purposes may be identified in terms of questions, printed on the chalk/white board, to answer in the ensuing reading activity. Pupils as well as the teacher need to choose these questions. As a follow up experience, pupils should discuss subject matter read. Here, critical and creative reading, as well as problem solving might well be emphasized. Pupil comprehension must be stressed. Fourth, pupils might need assistance in word recognition. There can be several procedures used here, such as pronouncing the word immediately when a learner raises his/her hand when reading and asking for help. Context clues is a good procedure, too, in that a pupil who hesitates on an unknown word is asked to give one which makes sense in relationship to the rest of the words in the sentence. If this is not adequate, the involved pupil needs to look also at the beginning letter, generally a consonant, to sound out the word. Sounding out words may be used to identify unknown words as the need arises as well as when sound/symbol relationships are consistent. Phonics is merely a tool to identify unknown words in reading; making sense of sentences in reading comprehension is salient and not phonic learning for its own sake (Ediger and Rao, 2011). …
Analysis of the Student-life Stress Inventory, SSI-R, with 601 students showed that the inventory was a reliable and valid instrument for measuring students' stressors and reactions to stressors. The SSI-R has 53 items grouped under nine categories and two sections (Stressors and Reactions to Stressors). The internal consistency for the total SSI-R was .93 and test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from .46 to .76. Significant differences were found among the three stress level groups on all categories and total stress score. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that variables contributed to their respective latent variables. Scores on the SSI-R categories correlated positively with scores on the Test Anxiety, State-Trait Anxiety, and Beck Depression Inventory scores, respectively. Other studies should be conducted to determine if there are differences between participants who score mild versus severe stress on various activities and learning processes. ********** At one time or another, everyone experiences some stress. Stress may be a different kind of and/or at different levels. Selye (1974) defined stress as the non-specific response of the body to demands made on it. He described stress as distress and eustress. The distress has negative effects but eustress has positive effects on humans. Some researchers refer to stressors as hassles (Lazarus & Folkman, (1984) or mild and severe (Gadzella, 1991). The mild stress would be equivalent to Selye's eustress and the severe stress to his distress. The study of stress, its effects, and how to cope with it, is of concern to psychologists, counselors, educators, students, and common people in general. To combat stress, it is important to first recognize and admit that one is experiencing it, to understand what effects it has, and know how to cope and/or reduce the stressful experiences. Theorists point out that the effects of stress are not entirely negative. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000), stated that researchers had devoted too much time to the weaknesses and harmful effects of stress and had neglected to explore the effects of stress which can make life worth living. Folkman and Mosknvitz (2000) also drew attention to the favorable outcomes of stressful experiences. Other researchers (e.g., Tedescki, Park, & Calhoun, 1998) felt that stress may promote personal growth, assist people in developing new skills, reevaluate priorities, and acquire new strengths. Sutherland (2000) summed it up indicating that most people would prefer some stimulation (caused by stress) rather than live a boring stress-free existence. Stated differently, stressful situations may lead to personal changes which might be beneficial to individuals. That is, it can improve one's coping skills and enable one to learn from one's mistakes (Calhoun & Tedescki, 2001). This type of stress may be referred to as mild or eustress as described by Selye (1974). Over the years, researchers (Holmes & Rahe, 1967; Scheier & Carver, 1985) developed questionnaires to assist people in understanding their stressful experiences. Other researchers such as (Sarason, Johnson and Siegel (1978) studied stress and its relationships with various experiences. One inventory, Student-life Stress Inventory, SSI (Gadzella, 1991; Gadzella & Baloglu, 2001) assesses students' stress levels and assists students in understanding the different kind of stressors and reactions to stressors they might experience. Numerous studies have been conducted with the SSI (e.g., Gadzella, 1994; Gadzella & Baloglu, 2001; Gadzella & Guthrie, 1993; Gadzella & Fullwood, 1992; Gadzella, Ginther, & Fullwood, 1993; Misra & Castillo, 2004; Misra, MeKan, Russo, & West, 2000; Marzeth & Farileh, 2004) showing significant differences among students with different overall stress levels and their responses to the SSI. Other studies (e.g., Ming-Hui, 2005; Gadzella & Stephen, 2007; Gadzella & Marrs, 2007; Gadzella, Zascavage, Masten, Young, Stephens, & Pierce, 2007) showed differences among student stress level groups and academic performance. …
Since professional psychology is a multifaceted and evolving field, examining trends and the emphasis that topical issues receive in the literature can provide a candid view on areas of concern to the profession. This study addresses the question: Where has professional psychology been and where is it going? This inquiry used a content analysis methodology, based on a bibliometric approach (see Nederhof, 2006), to gauge the extent of topical emphasis in the field over the past 2 decades. To that end, articles in the journal Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, for years 2012-2005 and 2002-1995, were categorized and the aggregated data compared between these 2 time frames based on main topic. The analysis indicated that the major areas of increasing emphasis in recent years are: Evidence-based treatments, veterans/ active military, multicultural and ethical issues, and natural disasters. This seems, in part, to reflect a) accountability in health care/mental health practice and b) the presence of wars and disasters in the national consciousness over the past decade. Areas of decreasing emphasis were: Graduate/internship training and education, managed care issues, and professional role. In addition, several topical areas have maintained equivocal emphasis over the past 2 decades, i.e., forensic, health, and child psychology, suicide, chronic pain, rural practice, and interpersonal violence. These findings provide a barometer on the diverse range of topics which have been emphasized or deemphasized over time. The perplexing issue is a) whether the published research in professional psychology reflects the issues and concerns of practicing psychologists in the field, and b) which issues will remain fundamental to practice and at the forefront of published research, despite the perennial challenges of an evolving profession. ********** Fowler and Newman (2006) highlighted several keen perspectives on the status of the field of professional psychology and offered a glimpse into the key trends in the field into the 21st century. It would be informative to obtain an objective view on both retrospective and prospective developments in the field and determine areas of emphasis as reflected in the literature. One approach to gauge such trends in professional psychology is to examine key bibliometric sources regarding where the field has been and where it is going (Kenkel, 2006; Norcross et al., 2002; Piotrowski & Keller, 1992; Schui & Krampen, 2010). Content analysis methodologies have been applied to the scholarly and professional literature in order to address the evolution and devolvement of scholarly areas or topics of interest (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998). Indeed, studies, based on content analysis, have been reported during the nascent years in the development of professional psychology; for example, on such issues like professional competency and continuing education (Vitulano & Copeland, 1980) and applications of I/O psychology (Meltzer, 1973). Later, Weaver et al. (1997) conducted a topic-specific systematic review across 8 APA journals. More recently, content analysis has been used to study trends on multi-racial issues covered in counseling journals (Edwards & Pedrotti, 2008). The purpose of the current study is to: a) identify the major topical areas of research coverage in professional psychology, and b) to determine any shifts in emphasis across these areas over time. Conceptual Framework and Study Design Historically, the field of professional psychology encompassed the general areas of clinical and counseling psychology, with emphases in assessment, therapy, and program planning, but over the past 30 years has embraced adjunctive and specialty fields like organizational, forensic, and child psychology, as well as neuropsychology. It would be of interest to examine the specific areas within the field of professional psychology that have received the most scholarly interest in the recent past and determine the areas that are currently being emphasized. …
Since occupational health psychology is a relatively young specialty, it would be informative to gauge the extent of research emphasis on key topical areas in the sub-discipline. This study reports on a content analysis of journal articles (1996-2012) in the leading APA journal in the area: Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. The most researched topics were: Work-Family factors, strain-stress models, physical health, workplace health promotion, burnout, and well-being. The analysis identified a host of important areas within the domain of occupational health (e.g., person-job fit, workaholism, ergonomics, hazardous materials, discrimination, legal issues) that received sparse research interest. These findings a) support the Pareto effect-where the majority of research reflects a limited range of topics, and b) prompt the issue of whether research adequately informs practice. ********** Within the general field of Psychology, the specialty of occupational health psychology is a relatively recent area of development (Quick & Tetrick, 2003). However, within the domain of occupational health, a host of important issues have had a long, central history that has been reflected in the research literature over the past century (e.g., workplace hazards, worker safety, boredom, shift work, absenteeism, legal protections). Since this sub-specialty is nascent in character within the discipline of Psychology, it would be of interest to determine the major areas of emphasis (and de-emphasis) from a research perspective. One aim of this study is to highlight some neglected areas of research in the field. One approach to gauge developments or trends in research is to conduct a content analysis of the literature. Over the years, various types of bibliometric analyses have been utilized as valid methodological approaches in assessing research trends in the field of psychology (Meltzer, 1973; Piotrowski, 2012; Schui & Krampen, 2010) and management (e.g., Miles & Naumann, 2011). Method In line with recent analyses of topical content in leading APA journals such as the Journal of Applied Psychology (see Cascio & Aguinis, 2008), the current study conducted a content analysis, based on subject focus, of individual journal articles published in the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology: 1996-2012 inclusive. The author categorized each article in a topical designation that represented the main focus of the research. The data were then tabulated based on frequency counts. Findings Table 1 presents 3 topical groupings, based on frequencies greater than 9 (high research interest), from 5 to 8 (moderate interest), and 4 or less (low interest). Interestingly, topics of high interest are all well represented as individual chapters of major texts on occupational health psychology (Houdmont & Leka, 2010; Quick & Tetrick, 2003). At the same time, many areas of interest to both academicians and professionals in the I/O field (i.e., downsizing, tele-work, workaholism, person-job fit, motivation, discrimination, distributive justice, ergonomics, age issues) appear to receive limited attention from researchers. Undoubtedly, these critical issues are well represented in the general I/O literature and management journals. At the same time, it appears that topics that have a central role and define the field of 'occupational medicine'--such as pollutants, hazardous materials, noise, and environmental psychology (see Kowalczyk, 2010)--receive limited attention in occupational health psychology. This analysis points to the challenges of an evolving sub-discipline and to concerns regarding comprehensiveness and durability of knowledge during a time of exponential growth in scholarly research (Neimeyer, Taylor, & Rozensky, 2012). …
The main purpose of the study is enabling the prospective teachers to make self-regulations by video recording their piano performances with their instructors and feedbacks of their instructors and detect the views of specific students concerning these video records. The research was carried out during 2008-2009 academic year in Marmara University, Ataturk Faculty of Education, Department of Music Teacher Education. In the research, four prospective teachers from different grades have been covered and data have been gathered through semi-structured interviews. The results, in general, showed that prospective teachers had benefited and positive experiences from their video records. The prospective teachers also reported that the use of video records of their piano performances as feedback improve the quality of their piano performances. Key Words: Self regulation, feedback, piano education, performance evaluation, video recording ********** As of 2005-2006 academic year, The Ministry of National Education started to gradually adapt the secondary education curriculum into constructivist teaching approach. Similar practices have taken place in elementary education curriculum as well. Within this framework, certain regulations based on constructivist approach have been set to implement in elementary school (1st-8th grades) starting from 2007-2008 academic year (MEB, 2007). All these regulations in the curriculums of primary and secondary education have inevitably affected curriculums of higher education institutions for teacher training as well. Consequently prospective teachers have been more equipped regarding practices and learning experiences reflecting constructivist approach in the curriculums of primary and secondary education institutions they are to be employed after graduation. Parallel to the other fields, in music teacher training programs as well, efforts that fit into constructivist teaching approach have been made. Constructivism is a knowledge theory or philosophical explanation concerning the nature of learning. Constructivism underlines that by forming teaching and learning experiences in a way to activate students' thoughts we should assist them in structuring new information (Schunk, 2009:275). The main point in constructivism is that the learner constructs new information based on his/her past experiences and knowledge. Nonetheless, as stated by Acikgoz (2008:67) too, constructivism is not explaining the way to perform teaching but rather the way how student learns; hence the reflection of constructivism in class environment is possible only via active learning methods. In active learning, the learner bears the responsibility for his/her own learning process. Active learning is the kind of a learning process where learner is given the opportunity to take decisions regarding several aspects of learning process and make self-regulation and it is a system where the learner is forced to employ his/her mental skills while learning by means of complex teaching practices (Acikgoz, 2008:17). Throughout this process, use of metacognitive skills plays a significant role in enhancing the quality of learning process. Constructivist theory of Vygotsky concerning human development led him to self-regulation. Vygotsky believed that human beings and their cultural environments structured interactive social systems. By means of communication and action, folks around children taught them the tools they need to gain skills (such as language, symbols, signs etc.). As these tools are employed within the system students develop higher levels of metacognitive functions like concept acquisition or problem solving. When he employed the term 'high mental function' Vygotsky pointed to an intentionally driven thought system. From this perspective, self-regulation may be viewed as a high mental function. Self-regulation includes in itself the coordination of mental procedures like memory, planning, synthesis and evaluation. …
Positive effects in courses for preservice teachers about of students with disabilities and other exceptionalities have not been consistently shown, but it is possible that the lack of effect is due to the assessment technique that has been used. This study used a retrospective pretest to gauge the effects on attitudes in a course preparing students for inclusive classrooms. Having the students take a second, retrospective, pretest after the posttest revealed positive results for the course not shown by traditional, pretest-posttest assessment. ********** Increasing numbers of students with disabilities being taught in general education classrooms have generated a corresponding number of teacher preparation courses designed to prepare prospective general education classroom teachers for these students. These courses have the meritorious purpose of preparing general education classroom teachers for the diversities which will exist in their classrooms (Cantrell, 2003). It has often been noted that specialized courses and training experiences are needed to prepare prospective classroom teachers for future inclusive classrooms (Martinez, 2003). Yet, noticeably, even with blossoming numbers of these courses, literature describing these courses is scant. The literature one does find has varying records of their success. Attitudes are presumed to be the critical variable in the success of inclusion. Richards and Clough (2004) relate that teacher attitudes are presumed to be the critical variable in the success of inclusion. A principal concern then becomes the attitudes these future educators will have about teaching students with varying disabilities. There is some literature showing that even teachers who are currently in classrooms--who may not have had preparation for teaching these diversities--may not have hoped-for attitudes toward teaching these students or the ready willingness to teach them (Martinez, 2003). Martinez points out: Despite documentation that general education teachers believe that regular classrooms are the best placement for children with disabilities, their attitudes are frequently ambivalent or negative toward increased mainstreaming practices In the limited research that does exist, studies have found these teachers' attitudes and beliefs about to be negative (Garriott, Miller, & Snyder, 2003). Some writers have declared that attitudes may be positive as an initial predisposition, though they may not have conducted specific assessment of those attitudes (Richards & Clough, 2004). Additionally, there is limited evidence about the effects of interventions aimed at changing attitudes toward students with disabilities (Martinez, 2003). This is echoed by the limited evidence for the impact of introductory courses in teacher preparation programs, with resulting impact on attitudes being inconsistent. Although those who take such courses may show increases in their readiness to teach these students, and that is an improving trend (Sharma et al., 2008, p. 783), they may not have had a corresponding increase in attitude. Moreover, course instructors have the perception that students do leave such courses feeling more confident and excited about the opportunities they will have in their classrooms (Peterson & Beloin, 1999). Still, the contradictory findings could lead to the conclusion that one course may not be sufficient to produce the hoped-for attitudes (Martinez). One example of such a course is provided by Martinez (2003), who assessed attitudes with the Opinions Relative to the Integration of Students with Disabilities (ORI) (Antonak & Larrivee, 1995). This researcher compared pre-and posttest results of an course on the ORI, a measure of teachers' sense of efficacy, and interviews. Pre- and posttest comparison on the attitude scale did not show differences, although the researcher points out that at the end of the course students had overwhelmingly positive attitudes about inclusion (p. …
Very little research addresses the sources of stereotypes about the psychology discipline and what students think of those stereotypes. In Study I, students from a psychology careers course listed the stereotypes they had heard about psychology and the major. We then surveyed students from different sections of the course about their frequency of hearing these stereotypes from their friends/fellow students and parents/family members. Participants reported that friends/fellow students were a more frequent source of stereotype information than parents/family members, and upper division students reported more frequently hearing the stereotypes than lower division students. In Study 2, students reported minimal agreement with the stereotypes. We discuss the implications of these results for research on psychology stereotypes and for career advising. ********** The field of psychology is characterized by a broad number of sub-disciplines and many linkages to other fields of study. Despite this broad range of application, students, mass media, and the lay public have a variety of stereotypes about the field of psychology and the characteristics of those who major or work in this field (Mura & Levy, 1987; Wood, Jones, & Benjamin, 1986). These stereotypes are likely to impact student perceptions, intentions, and behaviors, including whether or not they choose to major in the field and what they believe they can do with a psychology degree. Despite the prevalence and potential implications of such stereotypes, experimenters have conducted very little research on the nature, prevalence, and sources of them. Psychology majors frequently report having an inaccurate understanding of the field, its educational requirements, and the job and career opportunities available to them (e.g., Galucci, 1997; Gutman, 1979; Nauta, 2000). The existence of these misconceptions means that psychology educators need to be concerned with accurately presenting the field and the major to their students. This would allow students to make more realistic assessments of their career options and how to prepare for those options. However, these efforts are unlikely to change the misconceptions and stereotypes of the public or of those from other fields of study. The latter sources may be likely to offer these stereotypes to students who are thinking about majoring or have decided to major in psychology. We could find no vocational identity and career decision-making literature that specifically addressed the role that stereotypes about the major play in student perceptions, attitudes, and decisions in any discipline. As a first step in addressing the lack of research on stereotypes about the psychology field, the goals of our research were to identify common stereotypes that psychology students have heard, assess their frequency of hearing these stereotypes from different sources, and examine how much students believe the stereotypes they have heard. We assessed how frequently students heard stereotypical views of the field from their parents/family members as well as from their friends/fellow students. Although this was exploratory research, we expected that some stereotypes might be reported more frequently from different sources and depending upon one's year in school. These hypotheses are described in more detail later. Class Discussion of Psychology Stereotypes The first phase of this research involved students from three online sections of a Seminar on Careers in Psychology course. In our department, this course is required for all psychology majors. The online version of the course uses several best practices associated with online course delivery (Brinthaupt, 2010). It is taught as a 7-week, 1-credit, pass-fail course. As part of this course, students in three sections (N = 81, 65 women, 16 men) participated in required online class discussions. The first class discussion pertained to stereotypes about psychology and the psychology major. …
The current investigation examines the impact of student prepared testing aids on student performance. Specifically, this investigation explores the plausibility of a dependency hypothesis explanation versus an engagement hypothesis explanation for the potential impact of student prepared testing aids. Unlike many studies on this topic that come out of general psychology classes, this study includes undergraduate students in an applied statistics section. The results of this investigation support the engagement hypothesis in that students who hand-generated testing aids performed significantly better than students who computer-generated their aids. Interestingly, the greatest impact on student performance was revealed for the applied portion of the exam, over the selected response portion of the exam. ********** The use of student-prepared testing aids, commonly referred to as cheat sheets or crib sheets, is a commonplace assessment procedure in education (Butler & Crouch, 2011; Larwin & Larwin, 2009). However, opposing hypotheses exist about the reasons for their impact on student performance and learning. Dorsel & Cundiff (1979), Dickson & Bauer (2008) and Funk and Dickson (2011) have concluded that student-prepared testing aids benefit students in that they serve as a source of information that students need for an exam, and students then rely on or depend on the aid, rather than learning the information and committing it to memory. According to this dependency hypothesis explanation, the act of creating a testing aid does not enhance student learning and memory; it amounts instead to a clerical exercise in creating a reference tool that is depended upon to provide the information the student needs during an exam. However, there were a number of potential extraneous variables operating within the Dickson and Bauer (2008) study that qualifies this evidentiary challenge. In this repeated-measures study, Dickson and Bauer found that there was indeed significantly better performance when students prepared and used student-prepared testing aids on a multiple-choice psychology exam, relative to when those same students prepared but did not use testing aids on a pre-test subset composed of identical questions. As all the students had prepared testing aids before the pre-test-then-exam sequence, the fact that the students performed better on the exam when testing aid use was allowed caused the authors to conclude that constructing aids did not actually enhance student learning; they argued instead, that the use of testing aids simply enhanced student performance. Dickson and Bauer reasoned that had the act of constructing testing aids actually enhanced learning, all students should have performed similarly on the pre-test and the exam. However, in the Dickson and Bauer (2008) study, students were aware that the pre-test would not count toward their grade and thus their performance quality on the pre-test was of little significance to them personally. This may have undermined some of their motivation to perform well. Secondly, students were under the impression that they would be able to use their student-prepared testing aids on their examinations. Thus, even though the pre-test didn't count, having an unexpected pretest to take without the potential benefit of their student-prepared testing aids may have generated some test anxiety that could have worked to attenuate pre-test performance. Finally, as this study was a repeated-measures study where the pre-test items and exam items on which performance was assessed were identical, it is possible the improved scores on the exam, the second assessment, were influenced by a practice effect. Indeed, Dickson and Bauer presented evidence that the students performed significantly better on the specific exam questions that were identical to those in the pre-test relative to the exam questions that were not a part of the pre-test. …
This study investigated the challenges faced by 500 2nd secondary students in their EFL reading comprehension in Amman 2nd directorate of education. To achieve this purpose, a 49-item close questionnaire was used to collect relevant data in the first semester 2010. Several challenges, among others, emerged from the findings of this study such as the learner's memorization of reading passages and their related questions due to the difficulty of these passages, lack of familiarity with their vocabulary items, mismatch of some reading material with the students' life and the ineffectiveness of some teacher's teaching methods. Others included lack of co-operative learning in reading instruction, overcrowded classroom size, L1/L2 interference, teacher-related mal-practices in the teaching of reading comprehension, lack of speed reading, lack of consideration of learner's reading challenges and methods, lack of connection between intensive and extensive reading activities, incongruence between learner's pre-knowledge and existing ideas in the passage. The study did not reveal an statistically significant differences in the EFL reading comprehension challenges ascribed to gender, academic stream and achievement level. On the basis of the results, it was recommended that reading texts should be diversified, vocabulary presentation and instructional strategies should be rethought, memorization of texts be abandoned and EFL reading teacher's training should be highlighted. Background In their reading comprehension, secondary students face challenges that may impede their understanding of the reading material assigned in their EFL curriculum and so postpone or deter their reading comprehension skills development. The English language curriculum of Jordan focuses on the development of the four language skills where the reading skill receives a clear and significant interest. Reading comprehension is sequentially represented in the various units the curriculum embraces. It is a normal learning practice that students take the reading comprehension section first then move into vocabulary, grammar and writing sections as a curricular requirement. The Jordanian 2nd secondary EFL syllabus is not an exception from this English language instruction. The assigned curriculum seeks to develop reading comprehension skills among high school students. However, the reading proficiency of Jordanian public school students, according to Almakhzoomy (1986), is viewed as fairly poor. Reading is perceived by teachers and learners of EFL as an active activity in which a learner, for example, connects it with prior knowledge possessed by them about the topic under reading. According to Gill (2008), readers are affected by both their interest and background knowledge about what they read. From a constructivist perspective, learners actively construct their knowledge by means of making links between their prior knowledge and the text they read (Dixon-Krauss, 1996). Yorio (1971) cited Godman (1967) defined reading as a psycholinguistic process in which the reader reconstructs an encoded message through the selection of syntactic as well as semantic cues as he or she gains progress in reading. This method is similarly used in foreign language reading despite L1 interference and lack of familiarity with the language which complicate the process. In this vein, foreign language students face the vocabulary problem as the most serious herald in reading English because words physically represent the smallest meaningful units the reading message contains. Students' reading difficulty may stem from their schema or prior knowledge as an essential element supposed to provide the basis for comprehension (Meyer and Rice, 1984). Schema theory illustrates how interaction between a reader's prior knowledge and text shapes students' understanding (Seidenberg, 1982). In line with this view, prior knowledge enables the reader to make predictions and establish expectations related to the content of the text to strengthen their comprehension (Graesser et al. …
We administered announced, multiple-choice quizzes to 1 of 2 sections of a Psychology of Learning course in each of 2 consecutive semesters. We administered the quizzes between the first and second exams and discontinued them between the second and third. At the end of each semester, students completed a questionnaire about their studying and whether the quizzes helped them prepare for the exam. We found that attendance was higher in the quiz sections during the quiz portion of the semester. In both semesters, students reported that the quizzes caused them to study more and feel better prepared for the exam. However, there was no difference in exam performance between the quiz and no-quiz sections. ********** Brief, frequently administered exams, or quizzes, serve many instructional purposes. One of the primary reasons for frequent testing is to motivate students to study on a more regular basis. Regularly scheduled exams, spaced several weeks apart, seem to produce studying behavior that is characteristic of fixed-interval (FI) schedules. In this schedule, the target behavior is virtually absent at the start of the interval and does not reach a high level until the interval is almost over. Once the interval is completed and reinforcement is collected, the behavior then stops and this scalloped pattern repeats itself. The study behavior of students, in which exams serve as the reinforcers (or at least the opportunity to earn reinforcement), so often resembles the FI pattern seen in the lab, that introductory psychology textbooks often use studying as an example of an FI schedule (e.g., Passer & Smith, 2001; Weiten, 1998). Upper division texts on the psychology of learning (Domjan, 2003) also use this example, and there is empirical support for this phenomenon (Mawhinney, 1971). Quizzes may reduce the FI scallop and induce more frequent studying. More frequent studying (e.g., reading the textbook) may produce at least two important results. First, it requires the students to engage in distributed rather than massed practice. It is well established that distributed practice is more effective (Dempster, 1996). Second, if the quizzes contain material not yet covered by lecture or discussion, prior reading should make the classroom time more beneficial. Indeed, there is evidence that reading compliance among college students is not high (Sappington, Kinsey, & Munsayac, 2002) and has in fact been declining during the 1980s and 1990s (Burchfield & Sappington, 2000). It seems intuitively obvious (at least to us and colleagues with whom we have discussed this issue), that quizzes will produce earlier and increased studying by students and thus the two results discussed previously will be achieved. However, faculty may be reluctant to give quizzes because of the belief that students find them aversive. This seems especially true for unannounced or quizzes. Thorne (2000) cited several studies confirming student's aversion for pop quizzes and found that they were made much less aversive when given for extra credit. However, he presented no data that students' exam scores improved as a result. Sporer (2001) also gave quizzes for extra credit and reported that the quizzes reduced anxiety about the exams and improved exam scores, although she presented no data. Additionally, Wilder, Flood, and Stromsnes (2001) found that extra-credit pop quizzes increased attendance and that students liked the quizzes. The students also reported that the quizzes helped them keep up with the course material. However, the quizzes did not improve exam performance. Ruscio (2001) found that randomly presented quizzes increased students' reading as defined by the percentage of students that passed the quizzes. However, he did not present any data that showed that the quizzes improved performance on scheduled exams. There seems to be, at best, only anecdotal evidence that pop quizzes improve exam performance. …
In this research, university students' psychological well being and self-esteem levels are investigated in terms of a number of variables. The sample in this study is composed of 382 university students. To gather the data for this study, the Subjective Information Form, Psychological Well-Being Scale and Self-Esteem Scale are used. T tests and one-way analysis of variance are used for the independent groups to determine the difference between variables when analyzing the research data. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient is used to find out whether there is a linear relationship between university students' psychological well-being and their self-esteem scores. The research findings are that there is a statistically significant difference in the sub dimensions of the Psychological Well-Being Scale according to the university students' genders. However, a statistically significant difference between genders is not found in the scores obtained from Self-Esteem Scale. Again, it is revealed that there is a significant difference between the university students' psychological well being and self-esteem levels in terms of their internet connection period and their participation in social clubs. In addition, it is determined that there is a positive correlation between the self-acceptance dimension of the psychological well being scale and the self-esteem scores. The results are discussed in accordance with the related literature and presents suggestions for further research. Keywords: Psychological Well-Being, Self-respect, Internet Addiction, Personality ********** In the 21st century, rapid changes and developments have affected people's lives both positively and negatively. While people try to get used to themselves into this case, they often ignore their own general well-being, particularly at university, as a place in which adolescents study which creates an anxiety for the youth who will administrate the community in the future. The concept of psychological well-being and its relation with gender differences, social relations, internet addiction, self-respect and some other factors has therefore become an increasingly important topic for researchers. Research into psychological well-being is focused on cultural differences (Diener & Diener, 1995; Kwan, Bond, & Singelis, 1997), individual differences (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006; Wissing & Van Eeden, 2002), changes in psychological well-being through life span (Blanchflower & Oswald, 2008; Kim & Kim, 2009; Shields & Wheatley, 2005), gender differences due to gender stereotypes (Mills, Grasmick, Morgan, & Wenk, 1992; Roothman, Kirsten, & Wissing, 2003), self-respect (Betton, 2001; Tajfel, 1981; Tuzgol-Dost, 2004), characteristics of personality (McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002; Ziskis, 2010) and internet addiction (Caplan, 2007; Dallery & Glenn, 2005; Glenn & Dallery, 2007; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Weiser, 2001). On the one hand, social support is believed to decrease psychological distress and the levels of depression, while enhancing subjective well-being (Ensel & Lin, 1991; Holahan & Moos, 1981; Turner, 1981; VanderZee, Buunk, & Sanderman, 1997; Winefield, Winefield, & Tiggemann, 1992). In studies in Taiwan and China, receiving emotional support from spouses and children is found to be positively associated with psychological well-being (Chen, 2001; Chi & Chou; 2001; Hermalin, Ofstedal, & Chang, 1996; Silverman, Hecht, McMilin, & Chang, 2008). However, emotional support from daughters-in-law exerts a stronger effect on mental health than other family relations in Taiwan. The receipt of material and instrumental support from daughters, sons and friends contributes to an individual's psychological well-being (Silverman, Hecht, McMilin, & Chang, 2008). To examine this aspect, Holahan and Moos (1981) conducted a study to investigate the relationship between psychological distress and social support. …
The purpose of this study was to investigate students' perceptions of physical educators. The study examined the following characteristics of instructors: 1) the effect appearance had on the instructors' ability to instill exercise intentions; 2) the effect the instructor's body image had on their credibility; 3) the students' perceptions of the instructor as being knowledgeable; 4) the students' belief that the instructor was a role model; and 5) the effect of gender on students' perceptions. Participants in this study consisted of male and female seventh- and eighth-grade students in a metropolitan region in the southeastern United States (n = 805). Students completed the survey which consisted of four images with varying body types. Participants were asked questions on their perception, attitude, and behavioral intentions. The study revealed a disconnect between the physical educators appearance and their message to their students. ********** One third of the children in the United States are overweight or obese (Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, 2008b; Ogden, Carroll & Flegal, 2008). Health care experts caution that these values are dangerously high. America's adolescents are the most obese teenagers in the world. Today's children may have a lower life expectancy than their parents because of numerous health complications brought on by obesity (Lavizzo-Mourey, 2004) leading to the first generation in more than a century to have shorter life spans than their parents (Olshansky, et al., 2005). Body mass index (BMI) is the most widely accepted screening method for identifying overweight and obesity in children and adolescents. Obtaining the height and weight measurements needed to calculate BMI is the most widely accepted screening method for overweight and obesity because these measurements are non-invasive. The BMI correlates with the level of body fat (Mei, et al., 2002). Children and adolescents ages 2-19 years are categorized as being overweight when their BMI values are at or above the 85th percentile but lower than the 95th percentile. They are categorized as obese when their BMI values are at or above the 95th percentile (Barlow & the Expert Committee, 2007). Childhood obesity predisposes children to numerous physiological complications, including type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease and heart attack, hypertension, dyslipidemia, impaired glucose homeostasis, sleep apnea, accelerated pubertal skeletal development, and orthopedic disorders (Freedman, Dietz, Srinivasan, & Berenson, 1999; Yanovski, 2001.) According to Wang and Dietz (2002), obesity-related annual hospital costs among youth were estimated to have more than tripled from $35 million in 1975-1981 to $127 million in 1997-1999. Additionally, obesity-related medical spending on adults was estimated to have topped $40 billion in 1998. By 2008, those costs had increased to an estimated $147 billion dollars annually (Finkelstein, Trogdon, Cohen, & Dietz, 2009). Levy and Petty (2008) identified the following factors suspected of contributing to childhood obesity: increased sedentary time spent watching television; playing video games; using computers, technology, and other media; regularly consuming junk food; media that markets unhealthy foods and drinks to children; schools that offer decreased recess time and school physical education; dual-career parents who are hurried, stressed, with little or no time to cook healthy meals or supervise their children's activities; living with a single parent; and parents who are not well educated about obesity and the influence of parental factors. Lafee (2008) reported that overweight or obese children have a 70% likelihood of becoming overweight or obese adults. Having an obese parent more than doubles the risk that both obese and non-obese children will become obese adults (Salbe & Ravussin, 2000). Furthermore, when both parents are obese, the chance that their children will also be obese rises to 80% (Anspaugh, Hamrick, & Rosato, 2003). …
Item difficulty on tests administered to 25 undergraduate students in an introductory statistics course was systematically varied by manipulating the item content using a multiple-reversal, mixed within-between design. The hypothesis that test questions containing examples that are easier to relate to will produce higher scores than those that are abstract was not supported. In fact, the relationship between intended and empirical item difficulty was found to be paradoxical (students tended to perform better on items intended to be more difficult) and influenced by several background variables. The findings of the present experiment argue for an empirical evaluation of even face-valid item writing principles. Key Words: item difficulty, multiple choice, statistics education, academic testing, item writing, quantitative reasoning ********** There is limited research available on how to reliably manipulate difficulty level of test items meant to measure quantitative reasoning skills (Daniel & Embretson, 2010). In the absence of established methods to vary conceptual and computational complexity, it is difficult to develop assessment instruments with a known difficulty gradient that allows for an efficient evaluation of mathematic knowledge. Studies on empirically validated item generation models that enable test developers to control for item difficulty typically focus on level of cognitive complexity or the extent to which item stimulus features are relevant to the measurement of the target constructs. Mayer, Larkin and Kadane (1984) developed a cognitive model of mathematical problem solving that assumes two global stages of processing: representation and execution. Their two-stage processing model starts with the conceptual understanding of the problem and ends in a procedural execution of a mathematical solution. The overarching skill is translating a problem into an equation and then solving it through the application of mathematical formulas. Webb's (2007) notion of Depth of Knowledge proposes a similar model by introducing a hierarchy that captures the levels of processing required by an item ranging from recall of facts, through interpretation of data and strategic thinking through complex reasoning. In actual practice, however, item complexity is typically determined by expert rating (Moreno, Martinez & Muniz, 2006; Wyse & Viger, 2011) rather than systematic empirical investigations (Crehan & Haladyna, 1991). There is a paucity of studies that experimentally manipulate relevant aspects of test items to isolate the components that determine their difficulty level. Besides the factors described above, the wording of items in general, the number and plausibility of distracters in multiple choice (MC) paradigms, the complexity of calculations are other possible determinants of item difficulty. Also, the type of examples used in either MC questions or word problems may play a role. In their review of literature, Erdodi and Lavicza (2008) identified an ability-anxiety-attitude triad as an explanatory model for statistics performance. They suggested that making the material relatable to students has the potential to address both anxiety and negative attitude towards statistics. As an extension of that concept to the assessment process, the present study proposed to evaluate whether the extent to which the type of examples used in statistics tests influences student performance. It was hypothesized that students would score higher on test items in which the narrative contains topics and elements that resonate with their daily experiences versus test items comprised of material that is unfamiliar and hence, difficult to relate to. Method Participants The sample consisted of 25 undergraduate students (10 males, 15 females, [M.sub.age] = 20.7 years, [SD.sub.age] = 1.9, range: 18-26) enrolled in an introductory statistics course for the social sciences. …
Promoting distance education is an important policy on many college campuses, so evaluating to what extent online learning environment may affect learning outcomes and/or student satisfaction should continue to be a research priority. This study investigated whether students in an online class performed differently than students in a traditional classroom setting on weekly quizzes, and whether their satisfaction with the course and instructor differed from students in a traditional classroom setting. Participants were two classes of students (N = 69) in Theories of Counseling. Results indicated no difference between the scores of the two groups on the weekly quizzes, but students in the online class were less satisfied with the course and instructor overall. These findings support other research indicating students may perform as well in an online environment as their counterparts in a traditional classroom, but their satisfaction with the educational experience may suffer. ********** Distance education (DE) is an increasingly popular solution to campus problems of overcrowding and student requirements for flexible schedules. Changing the traditional environment of the classroom has encountered enthusiasm from some camps of faculty, administrators, and students at the same time it has received resistance from others. A primary potential benefit for institutions is more efficient use of resources, whereas students may potentially benefit from increased critical thinking, leadership, communication, and problem solving skills (Spangle, Hodne & Schierling, 2002; Swan, 2001). Correspondingly, critics have highlighted potential drawbacks of distance education for students including increased isolation from peers, lack of engagement, and lack of sufficient technical support. Empirical research validating these perspectives has been contradictory and sometimes methodologically flawed. Therefore, as the number of online course offerings increase in higher education, evaluating to what extent online learning environment may affect learning outcomes and/or student satisfaction should continue to be a research priority. Learning Outcomes Early reviews of empirical studies comparing DE to traditional classroom learning found no difference between learning outcomes in these different settings (Russell, 1999; Phipps & Merisotis, 1999), and mounting evidence indicates many forms of learning environments may have the potential to be just as effective as traditional classroom learning experiences (Bernard et al., 2004; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006). Moreover, an important finding from a large-scale study based on the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) found a positive relationship between the use of technology and self-reported learning outcomes by students (Chen, Lambert & Guidry, 2010). Accordingly, several authors have established best practices for online learning based on these evaluations (e.g., Sunal, Sunal, Odell & Sundberg, 2003). Some of these include the importance of creating an online community, positive student attitudes toward online learning, high levels of professor interaction, and sufficient technical support. However, with so many variables potentially contributing to effectiveness of DE, relatively few studies have investigated the differences associated with learning environment alone. Furthermore, many studies that have tried to isolate these effects have included other variables that could potentially confound the results. For example, Borthick and Jones (2000) compared test scores of an online class and a traditional class taught during different semesters, which may pose a threat to the internal validity of the study. As Nora and Snyder (2008) conclude in their review of the literature related to e-learning and student outcomes, there is a huge gap in the research literature specifically devoted to ... investigations of the link between technology and performance indicators/outcomes . …
In these two studies, students with disabilities improved their academic productivity during independent practice activities, after their teachers trained them to use a tactile cued self-monitoring device called the MotivAider. While students worked, the MotivAider, placed in the students' pocket, vibrated periodically, thereby cueing students to ask themselves if they were doing their work. Then students checked yes or no on a self-recording form and immediately resumed their work. In Study 1, a 10th-grader with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder tripled the number of responses he wrote when solving linear equations in a general education Algebra class. In Study 2, a 7th-grader with emotional disturbance reduced, by two-thirds, the time he took to complete vocabulary word-of-the-day task, in a self-contained special education program, during English class. This article includes training procedures, practical tips, and resources for teachers who would like to help their students self-monitor academic performance or social behaviors. Both studies illustrate how to apply practically the principle of reactivity, derived from cognitive-behavioral theory, whereby raising ones own awareness of behavior can prompt improvements in an individual's performance. ********** An irksome experience for teachers is observing a student who produces little work during independent practice activities, especially when that student has the capacity to produce. Some teachers find that they must remind or cue the student, much too frequently, to stay on task. Teachers also might find it necessary to use proximity control, teacher-delivered reinforcement, or response cost. Fortunately, behavioral self-management (BSM) techniques, particularly self-monitoring, can help students manage their own behavior. When used effectively, BSM reduces students' over-reliance on teachers' cues, frees up teachers' time for more proactive tasks, and improves students' academic productivity (McDougall, 1998). Self-Monitoring In their analytic review, McDougall, Skouge, Farrell, and Hoff (2006) concluded that self-monitoring was the most frequently applied, most versatile, and most broadly supported of all BSM techniques. Self-monitoring consists of self-assessment plus self-recording (Glynn, Thomas, & Shee, 1973). When self-assessing, a student covertly asks a question such as Am I working? while doing a task. Then the student answers the self-assessed question by covertly noting yes or no, or--more overtly--by writing a mark on a self-recording form to indicate yes or no, then immediately resumes the task. Self-monitoring is based on the long-established, cognitive-behavioral principle of reactivity, whereby people benefit by becoming more aware of whether they are performing a specific task, such as reading a page from a book, as opposed to other behaviors, like staring out the window. Improved awareness (cognition) has a reactive effect in that it enables changes in performance (behavior) (Kanfer & Karoly, 1972; Rachlin, 1974). Many students routinely and covertly cue themselves, but some at-risk students require overt cues and systematic training in order to self-monitor effectively (McDougall, 2008). The most common self-monitoring interventions applied in classroom settings are audio-cued and visually-cued self-monitoring, both of which employ overt cues. Audio cues can be sounds such as beeps, tones, or a student's own prerecorded voice (Am I on task?) emitted by audio/digital recorders or timing devices. Fixed or variable cueing schedules can be adapted to meet the self-monitoring needs of individual students and contexts, with more frequent or less frequent audio cues, as needed. Visual cues can be printed words, directions, or forms, as well as symbols, signs, schedules, drawings, and photos. Research and practice indicate that teaching students, including those without disabilities and those with a wide range of disabilities, how to self-monitor is a 'best practice' that produces moderate to strong improvements in academic performance and social behaviors, across diverse settings, from pre-school through adulthood (Frey & George-Nichols, 2003; Hughes et al. …
