Antimicrobial resistance in ESKAPE pathogens is primarily attributed to resistance genes, yet persistent infections despite appropriate therapy implicate immune evasion as an independent driver of treatment failure. Although immune-evasion mechanisms have been extensively characterized in individual pathogens, their shared architecture across the ESKAPE group remains insufficiently integrated. This review synthesizes current evidence to show that phylogenetically diverse ESKAPE pathogens have convergently evolved conserved strategies to evade host immunity under comparable selective pressures. A cross-pathogen immune-evasion framework emerges, encompassing impaired pathogen recognition, complement inhibition, phagocyte dysfunction, immunometabolic reprogramming, biofilm-mediated protection, and persistence-promoting inflammation, together with pathogen-specific virulence mechanisms. These processes intersect with adaptive immune dysfunction and emerging concepts, including quorum-sensing-mediated immunomodulation, trained immunity, and the itaconate-succinate immunometabolic axis, forming an interconnected persistence network rather than isolated virulence traits. This systems-level perspective identifies conserved host-directed therapeutic targets that may complement conventional antimicrobial therapy across species. However, host-directed therapies, immunotherapeutics, and vaccines remain largely preclinical or have shown inconsistent clinical efficacy. Mechanistic evidence is strongest for Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae, whereas substantial knowledge gaps persist for Enterococcus faecium, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Enterobacter spp. Overcoming persistent ESKAPE infections will require targeting conserved host-pathogen interactions alongside pathogen-specific antimicrobial resistance mechanisms.
Carbepenem-resistant Klebsiella quasipneumoniae have increasingly been reported across many regions, yet data on the carbapenemase-producing isolates remain scarce. This study aimed to characterize the blaNDM-1-positive Klebsiella sp. strain M42D recovered from a human carrier in Thailand. Strain M42D exhibited high-level resistance to carbapenems but remained susceptible to colistin. Whole genome sequencing was conducted using the Illumina and PacBio platforms. A complete genome sequence identified strain M42D as K. quasipneumoniae subsp. similipneumoniae (Kqps) ST334. The blaNDM-1 gene was determined to be transferable and located on the IncN2 pKquM42Da (41.2 kb). Mutations in OmpK36 and OmpK37, involved in carbapenem resistance, were observed. In silico analysis of 361 Kqps genomes showed that 9.1% of isolates, mostly from humans in Southeast Asia, carried a carbapenemase gene. Among these, blaNDM-1 was present in six isolates, with only strain M42D belonging to ST334. Core genome single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis demonstrated that M42D clustered with other Kqps ST334 isolates with 142-186 SNP differences, suggesting that they are evolutionarily distinct strains. This study reports the first blaNDM-1-harboring Kqps ST334 isolate, highlighting the need for further genomic surveillance of Kqps from different origins, which may help to understand the antibiotic resistance, and dissemination of Kqps within the community.
The most prevalent diagnostic conditions in domestic cats (Felis catus) are oral diseases, affecting up to 90% of older cats. Periodontal disease (PD), feline chronic gingivostomatitis (FCGS), and tooth resorption (TR) are the principal clinically relevant entities, each with distinct histopathological and microbiological features. Certain molecular techniques, including 16S rRNA sequencing, shotgun metagenomics, and metatranscriptomics, have substantially advanced our understanding of the feline oral microbiome alterations. This review summarizes the findings of the healthy oral microbiome and its disease-associated shifts in PD, FCGS, TR, and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV)-associated pathology. The healthy oral cavity is dominated by Proteobacteria, Bacteroidota, Bacillota, Fusobacteria, and Actinobacteria, notably Porphyromonas, Moraxella, Capnocytophaga, and Fusobacterium. Dental disease is characterised by expansion of Bacteroidota and Spirochaetota, enrichment of Treponema, Peptostreptococcus, Filifactor, and Fusobacterium nucleatum, and depletion of commensals. The contributions of fungi, viruses, and host immunity are critically evaluated, alongside the development of microbiome-based diagnostics and therapeutics. We argue that dysbiosis is a unifying (albeit not monocausal) feature of feline oral pathology and identify gaps in current knowledge that require further investigation.
Background:In a cross-sectional analysis, we assessed the quality of the management of peripheral and central venous catheters (PVCs and CVCs) of inpatients at a tertiary care hospital in Germany, proportions of inflammatory signs, and catheter type-specific time periods of catheter application at the time of the detection of such inflammatory signs. Methods:From 40 wards - excluding the department of psychiatry - data on the abundance, management and handling of PVCs and CVCs were collected and comparatively assessed. Results:Among a total of 688 patients, 303 (44.0%) individuals had 327 PVCs (22× double applications, 1× triple application) and 80 (11.6%) had CVCs. For both types of venous catheters, signs of inflammation were in the ≤5% range. While these inflammatory signs were observed in PVCs being in place for 3.0 (±1.8) days, affected CVCs were in place for 6.8 (±3.5) days. Within both categories, however, duration of use was not an independent risk factor for inflammation, while CVCs were generally longer in use than PVCs. Conclusions:Risk of inflammation was found to be similar for PVCs and CVCs at a German tertiary hospital, affected CVCs were longer in place.
Background:The investigation was conducted to evaluate a robust commercial multiplexed species- or species complex-specific real-time PCR assay for human malaria applicable with mobile cyclers. Methods:A well-characterized sample set of blood samples from travelers with high pre-test probability of being infected with plasmodial species was assessed with the Plasmodium qPCR panel (Bioeksen, Istanbul, Turkey) against a composite reference standard comprising microscopy following the protocols by World Health Organization in combination with four nucleic acid amplification tests for malaria. Results:From 1,020 included samples, composite reference standard testing identified 248 (24.3%) as positive for plasmodial DNA, comprising 217x Plasmodium falciparum, 14x Plasmodium vivax, 8x Plasmodium ovale complex, 6x Plasmodium malariae and 3 samples containing DNA of both P. falciparum and P. vivax. Diagnostic accuracy of the evaluated PCR in terms of sensitivity and specificity was 96.8% (240/248) and 99.5% (768/772). The resulting positive and negative predictive values were 98.4% (240/244) and 99.0% (768/776). False-negative results were associated with either submicroscopic parasitemia or parasitemia at the threshold of microscopic detection. Conclusion:The assessed multiplex real-time PCR assay showed similar performance characteristics like comparable diagnostic assays and thus proved to be suitable for the differentiation of plasmodia in the non-endemic setting.
Lentinan, a β-(1,3)-glucan derived from the mushroom Lentinus edodes, is known for its health-beneficial including anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor effects particularly in the gastrointestinal tract, and even regarded as adjuvant in cancer treatment in Asia. There is, however, a knowledge gap regarding lentinan's clinical application and the underlying mechanisms of its pleiotropic effects. This prompted us to perform a scoping review summarizing current knowledge of lentinan's health-promoting and disease-alleviating properties in the gastrointestinal tract and beyond. Preclinical and clinical studies revealed protective and therapeutic effects of the compound in distinct gastrointestinal pathologies, including colitis, chemotherapy- and immunosuppression-induced intestinal injury, infection models as well as in colorectal carcinogenesis by modulating intestinal epithelial barrier integrity, immune signaling, and microbiota composition. Lentinan was reported to exert its anti-tumor effects by interfering with apoptosis, autophagy, stemness, and angiogenesis. Notably, lentinan enhanced the effectiveness of chemotherapy and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy, reduced treatment-related adverse events, improved survival and quality of life. The observed effects were dependent on lentinan's molecular weight, dose, and route of administration. In conclusion, lentinan application constitutes a promising intervention strategy in gastrointestinal and extra-intestinal including systemic morbidities that should be further investigated in preclinical and clinical studies.
C57BL/6 mice serve as in vivo-model mimicking acute enteritis caused by Salmonella Typhimurium (S. Tm) but succumb to infection within a week. CBA mice, however, were shown to be clinically resistant to S. Tm-infection, survive the acute phase and are hence suitable to study chronic infection. We performed a comprehensive survey of enteropathogenic loads and immunopathological responses in intestinal compartments during the early and late phase of S. Tm-infection. Upon oral challenge of CBA mice, the enteropathogens colonized the intestines with highest loads in the cecum and colon. Whereas all mice survived the 4-week observation period and did not display any symptoms, marked inflammatory cell damage became overt in the cecum as early as 24 h post-infection (p.i.) that was accompanied by increased numbers of large intestinal innate immune cells including neutrophils, macrophages, and monocytes on days 1 and 14 p.i., whereas recruitment of adaptive immune cells such as T and B lymphocytes and regulatory T cells to the cecum and colon was pronounced on days 14 and 28 p.i. Depending on the time point S. Tm-infection resulted in differential cytokine secretion alongside the intestinal tract. Collectively, our results underscore CBA mice as a model to study chronic S. Tm-infection including long-term fecal pathogen shedding.
Objective:The Eustachian tube (ET) is essential for middle ear ventilation. Chronic obstructive ET dysfunction may lead to chronic otitis media and cholesteatoma, but its pathophysiology remains unclear. Commensal bacterial colonization of the ET has not previously been studied in healthy individuals or affected patients. Study Design and Patients:Prospective cohort study was conducted at a tertiary academic referral center including 13 patients with chronic obstructive ET dysfunction and 37 controls. Between 2017 and 2020, intraoperative tissue samples and swabs were collected using a contamination-minimized Yankauer suction technique. Samples underwent conventional culture diagnostics, microbiome analysis via 16S rDNA sequencing, and histopathological examination. Results:Culture identified 552 bacterial strains, with greater diversity in controls (34 genera) than in patients (19 genera). Microbiome analysis confirmed a larger core microbiome in controls. Rothia was more abundant in patients, whereas Veillonella predominated in controls. Genera such as Rothia and Gemella may be linked to microbial alterations in chronic ET dysfunction. Conclusion:This first combined culture-based and molecular analysis using a novel sampling-technique demonstrated reduced bacterial diversity in chronic ET dysfunction patients, resembling patterns seen in other chronic respiratory morbidities. Future studies should incorporate complementary sampling approaches and cutting-edge sequencing technologies, additionally assessing viral etiologies.
Background:We assessed changes associated with the SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2) pandemic on hand disinfection compliance and technique among inpatients and visitors in a German tertiary-care hospital. Methods:Hand disinfection compliance and technique were directly observed. Approximately 10% of observed individuals were included in a questionnaire-based study on motivations and knowledge (voluntary participation). A pre-pandemic period of 5 months was compared with a pandemic period of 10 months during the early phase of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in 2020. Results:A total of 5,517 individuals observed as well as 456 observed and questioned were included in the assessment. Among observed individuals, hand disinfection compliance increased from 8.7% (181/2,087) to 24.0% (823/3,430) (P < 0.0001), and correct technique increased from 4.4% (91/2,087) to 10.0% (343/3,430) (P < 0.0001) during the pandemic period. Among volunteers participating in the questionnaire arm, compliance was high pre-pandemic (47.2%; 58/123) and remained stable during the pandemic period (45.6%; 152/333) (P = 0.8325). In this subpopulation, correct technique declined from 28.5% (35/123) to 17.7% (59/333) (P = 0.0136). Conclusions:Moderate pandemic-period-associated improvements in hand disinfection compliance and technique among non-healthcare professionals in healthcare settings may not increase indefinitely, but may reach a saturation level in individuals who already show comparatively high adherence.
The global surge in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) necessitates alternative therapeutic strategies, with plant-derived extracts emerging as promising candidates against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Despite substantial experimental research, the global structure, thematic evolution, and collaborative landscape of this field remain uncharted. This study presents the first comprehensive bibliometric analysis of plant-based anti-MRSA research spanning two decades (2004-2024). A total of 1,468 publications across 535 peer-reviewed journals were analyzed using VOSviewer and Bibliometrix in R. Key findings include: (1) a shift from a Western-centric foundation to a polycentric, Global South-led collaboration network, despite Asia's dominance in output (China: 526; India: 427 publications); (2) a four-phase thematic evolution progressing from ethnobotanical screening to a frontier focused on nanoformulations and dual-target (antimicrobial/anti-inflammatory) strategies; and (3) identification of critical gaps between publication volume and translational progress. Scholarly output is highly collaborative (average 6.35 authors per document; 27.52% international collaborations) and exhibits strong citation visibility (28.18 citations/document). These insights provide an evidence-based framework to guide global collaboration, prioritize research funding, and accelerate the translation of plant-derived compounds into clinically viable anti-MRSA therapeutics.
Highly sensitive molecular assays have become standard in most microbiology laboratories for the detection of a large variety of pathogens. For dermatophytes, however, fungal culture is often still pursued as the routine method although it requires weeks before results are available. We were interested in whether dermatology patients might benefit from the performance of a commercially available microarray that detects 23 dermatophytes, three yeasts, and three molds.We consecutively examined 49 skin specimens and 52 nail samples from 99 outpatients by both microarray and culture for the detection of fungi. The array detected dermatophytes and yeasts in skin and nail samples significantly more often than culture, and most culture-negative, array-positive patients returning after antifungal therapy showed clinical improvement. Three cultures yielded growth of environmental fungi not included in the array. In order to explain these discrepancies, fluorescence intensities of the microarray spots were analyzed. Fluorescence intensities for dermatophytes were significantly higher than those for molds; data were comparable, however, for culture-positive and culture-negative samples.In conclusion, the microarray investigated constitutes a valuable and sensitive tool in the laboratory diagnosis of dermatomycoses. Rapid, molecular assays for the detection of dermatophytes should be introduced in routine laboratory procedures.
Tattooing deposits ink into the dermis comprising an immunologically highly active organ that filters foreign antigens via lymphatic drainage towards regional lymph nodes. Given chronic antigenic stimulation upon dermal tattoo pigment deposition, lymphadenopathies might manifest both locally and even generalized as granulomatous inflammatory morbidities including sarcoidosis but might not be considered as tattoo-related differential diagnosis. This prompted us to summarize recent evidence on tattoo-associated lymphadenopathies by analyzing clinical presentation, localization, diagnostic workup including histopathology, treatment, and outcomes in a systemic literature survey. The included publications revealed that local lymphadenopathies consistently showed pigment-laden macrophages in draining lymph nodes without granuloma formation, supporting passive lymphatic transport. Conversely, generalized tattoo-associated lymphadenopathy cases predominantly involved hilar or mediastinal lymph nodes particularly observed in sarcoidosis patients, often with granulomatous changes in lymph nodes and/or tattooed skin. In several reports, the disease onset followed immune-modulating events such as laser tattoo removal, immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy, or vaccination. Importantly, affected lymph nodes frequently demonstrated avidity in scintigraphy, often leading to invasive procedures and psychological distress due to suspected malignancy. Hence, dermal tattoo pigments act as chronic triggers for distinct immunological host responses emphasizing the importance of thorough tattooing anamnesis when evaluating unexplained local or generalized lymphadenopathies including sarcoidosis.
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is an emerging multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogen that primarily causes healthcare-associated infections. This bacterium employs two key resistance mechanisms-intrinsic and acquired-to withstand antimicrobial toxicity, facilitating its spread and persistence within healthcare settings. This review focuses on acquired resistance mechanisms in S. maltophilia, highlighting genetic mutations and gene acquisition through horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Mutations that confer antimicrobial resistance commonly occur in drug targets (e.g., gyrA and parC, which encode DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, respectively), drug uptake systems, ribosomal proteins, metabolic enzymes, and more importantly, transcriptional regulators of multidrug efflux systems. These mutations can lead to resistance against the first-line treatments for S. maltophilia infections, including trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, levofloxacin, cefiderocol, and minocycline. The acquisition of resistomes via HGT also occur in S. maltophilia. Resistance genes, such as those encoding sulfonamide resistance (sul), trimethoprim resistance (dfr), quinolone resistance (qnr), aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes, and multidrug/biocide efflux pumps can be transferred from neighboring microbial communities through various genetic vectors, including insertion sequences, transposons, gene cassettes/integrons, and conjugative plasmids. Intrinsic resistance, combined with acquired resistance, can transform S. maltophilia from an MDR pathogen into an extensively drug-resistant or even pandrug-resistant strain, thus further complicating its treatment and management.
mRNA vaccines have shown high efficacy against SARS-CoV-2, yet orchestration of innate and adaptive responses in infection-naïve individuals remains incompletely characterized. Understanding these dynamics in people without prior infection is essential for defining baseline immune trajectories and providing a reference for future studies. We conducted a longitudinal study in SARS-CoV-2-naïve adults who received two doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine. Peripheral blood was analyzed by flow cytometry to quantify monocyte, NK, T, and B cell subpopulations, and serum cytokines were measured by multiplex assays. Data were evaluated with Z-score normalization and paired comparisons. Monocyte subsets segregated into two groups: one with progressive decline and another with transient activation. NK cells displayed multiphasic activation, particularly after booster. CD4+ and CD8+ T cells differentiated toward central and effector memory phenotypes, while B cells showed evidence of germinal center engagement followed by memory refinement. Cytokine fluctuations, including interferon-related signals, paralleled cellular dynamics. The booster was associated with re-engagement of innate components and amplification of adaptive responses. BNT162b2 vaccination in naïve individuals induces a coordinated sequence in innate and adaptive compartments, culminating in memory T and B cells. These findings align with current literature and provide trajectories to inform immune monitoring and optimization strategies.
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), particularly in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), continues to threaten global health due to its multidrug resistance and strong biofilm-forming ability. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have emerged as promising agents against MRSA biofilms because of their diverse origins, structural versatility, and unique modes of action. Natural AMPs derived from animals, plants, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria primarily act by disrupting bacterial membranes, interfering with quorum sensing, and downregulating biofilm-related genes such as sarA, icaA, and icaD. Synthetic AMPs, designed through computational modeling and machine learning, demonstrate enhanced stability, reduced toxicity, and improved target specificity. Synergistic AMP-antibiotic combinations, including nisin, indolicidin, and α-MSH analogs with β-lactams, significantly improve antibiofilm efficacy and bacterial clearance. Despite these advances, challenges persist due to peptide instability, enzymatic degradation, cytotoxicity, and limited in vivo validation. Recent developments in nanoparticle, hydrogel, coatings, and nanofiber delivery systems have improved AMP bioavailability and controlled release within biofilms. Continued integration of peptide engineering, nanotechnology, and bioinformatics-driven design offers promising solutions for clinical translation. Overall, AMPs represent a frontier in combating MRSA biofilms and antibiotic resistance, with future research focusing on stability enhancement, resistance prevention, and optimized therapeutic delivery.
Jorge Lobo disease (JLD) is a neglected cutaneous mycosis prevalent in the Brazilian Amazon, where limited access to histopathology delays diagnosis and care. We assessed minimally invasive punch cytology with maceration (MIPC-M), a simple procedure that uses a 1-mm punch followed by potassium hydroxide maceration and light microscopy, as a field-ready alternative. In a prospective, cross-sectional study (2014–2019) across 11 municipalities in the Brazilian Amazon, individuals ≥12 years with clinically suggestive lesions underwent three cytological approaches in parallel—adhesive tape cytology, exfoliative cytology, and MIPC-M—while histopathology served as the reference. Among 27 participants, MIPC-M identified yeast-like structures compatible with the JLD agent in 27/27 cases, yielding 100% sensitivity (95% CI, 87.2–100) versus histopathology. Adhesive tape and exfoliative cytology detected 3/27 (11.1%; 95% CI, 3.9–28.1) and 1/27 (3.7%; 95% CI, 0.7–18.3) cases, respectively. No adverse events occurred. These data support MIPC-M as a sensitive, rapid, and low-resource diagnostic option for JLD screening in remote settings. Larger studies should estimate specificity, evaluate inter-operator performance, and determine impacts on time-to-diagnosis and surgical management in Amazonian communities.
Mouse Integrin Associated Protein (MIAP) monoclonal antibodies are widely used for immunotherapeutic blockade of CD47. The anti-CD47 clones MIAP301 and MIAP410 have been studied as an immunotherapeutic treatment in the context of cancer and infectious diseases. To investigate the degree of induction of immune response afforded by these anti-CD47 clones, we treated C57BL/6 mice with MIAP301 or MIAP410, or isotype for two days and infected them with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). We found that the treatment of MIAP301 led to a significant increase in mRNA expression of IFNα4 and IFNβ1 compared to MIAP410 or isotype. Our study further revealed that MIAP301 treatment enhanced the numbers of CD11b+ macrophages and CD11c+ dendritic cells, as well as improved phagocytic capacity. Analysis of NK and T cells showed a subtle difference, and a significantly increased IFN-γ+ NK cell in the mice treated with MIAP301. Both anti-CD47 antibodies significantly increased NK cells, CD8+, and CD4+ T cells quantity and quality when compared to isotype. Overall, our findings indicate that MIAP301 treatment significantly increases myeloid innate immune signaling compared to MIAP410 treatment. Considering the evolving preclinical studies using anti-CD47 for therapy, our study findings may be important when deciding which clone to use.
Antibiotics have revolutionized medicine and drastically reduced mortality from bacterial infections. However, the widespread misuse of antibiotics in human and veterinary medicine, but also farming has greatly accelerated the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens hampering treatment of infectious diseases. Therefore, novel anti-infectious treatment concepts applying antibiotic-independent natural compounds are highly appreciated. Ginger ( Zingiber officinale Roscoe) has been proposed as such promising candidate given its health-beneficial including anti-microbial effects. Therefore, our systematic literature review summarizes current evidence for anti-bacterial effects of ginger and derived molecules to elaborate perspectives for treatment options of infectious diseases caused by bacterial pathogens. The included 22 articles revealed that defined ginger extracts, essential oils, and distinct molecules including gingerol and shogaol i) inhibited growth of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria including MDR isolates and ii) reduced distinct bacterial virulence factors including biofilm formation. Furthermore, iii) application of ginger together added to other plant-derived compounds or synthetic antibiotics markedly enhanced anti-bacterial effects of the latter, whereas iv) ginger could also exert immune-modulatory including anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities in vitro and in vivo . In conclusion, ginger-derived molecules constitute promising alternative or adjunct antibiotics-independent options in the combat of infectious diseases caused by bacterial pathogens including MDR strains.
Background The potential aetiological relevance of Blastocystis spp. and Dientamoeba fragilis in the human intestine, and their possible associations with Campylobacter spp. and Giardia duodenalis , remain unclear. By incorporating Bayesian priors to account for diagnostic test accuracy, we statistically analysed the interactions among these microorganisms. Methods Diagnostic test accuracy data were derived from multiple PCR assays and incorporated as priors to adjust for non-differential misclassification. Bayesian odds ratios and relationships based on DNA quantity were assessed for a dataset of 1,065 stool samples containing at least one of the four target microorganisms. Results Accounting for diagnostic test accuracy resulted in wide credibility intervals. Blastocystis spp. were negatively associated with G. duodenalis . G. duodenalis was most often detected in the absence of Blastocystis spp. and D. fragilis , whereas detection of Blastocystis spp. was associated with lower Campylobacter spp. DNA abundance. A negative association between Blastocystis spp. and Campylobacter spp. was observed only in the absence of D. fragilis . Conclusion The assumed variation in detection rates of Campylobacter spp. and G. duodenalis based on the presence of Blastocystis spp. and/or D. fragilis was confirmed. Future epidemiological studies should explore interactions among multiple microorganisms using robust statistical approaches.
Background:The pharmacotherapy of cutaneous leishmaniasis is invasive and presents several adverse reactions, which reinforces the need for topical and less toxic alternatives. Methods:Topical microemulsions containing phenolic compounds from Libidibia ferrea (Fabaceae) were developed, physicochemically characterized, and tested in hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) experimentally infected with Leishmania amazonensis. After treatment, clinical progression of lesions, histopathological alterations, and parasite load were evaluated. The dichloromethane (DCM) fraction of the extract was analyzed by mass spectrometry, and the main compounds were isolated. Results:The optimized microemulsion effectively controlled lesion progression, showing only a 25% increase in lesion volume, compared to a 383% increase for the group without treatment, and presented a moderate inflammatory response. A new phenolic compound, named libidine (phenylpropanoic acid derivative), along with methyl gallate, was isolated from the DCM fraction. Conclusions:The topical formulation was as effective as Glucantime® (antimonial standard treatment) and produced a significant reduction in parasite load, consistent with the antileishmanial activity previously reported for phenolic acids and their derivatives.
