A 7-yr-old male axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) was presented for a 2 wk history of dysphagia, weight loss, and progressive difficulty closing the mouth. On presentation, the patient appeared in thin body condition, and on oral examination a pink, multilobulated, fleshy mass was noted attached to the hard palate obscuring the oral cavity. Surgical removal was elected. Gross and histological examination of the biopsy revealed well differentiated nasal adenocarcinoma. The patient died at home 4 d later; necropsy was declined.
Reptiles are highly susceptible to anthropogenic activities due to narrow geographical ranges and habitat specialization, making them a conservation concern. The eastern indigo snake (EIS; Drymarchon couperi) is a large, nonvenomous, colubrid snake listed as threatened due to habitat loss, fragmentation, and decline of gopher tortoise populations. There exists a need to develop assisted reproductive technologies (ART) for this species to enhance breeding success and efficacy to aid conservation efforts focusing on restoring EISs back to their former range. Spermatozoa preservation is a valuable tool in many conservation programs and can aid in future artificial insemination attempts with cooled or cryopreserved spermatozoa. The objectives of this study were to characterize semen parameters of the EIS, including color, volume, concentration, spermatozoa motility, and morphology, and to determine the spermatozoa motility over time after extension in two commercial semen extenders, INRA 96 and Sperm Washing Medium, under refrigerated storage at 4°C (39.2°F). Twenty-two, captive bred, adult, male EISs housed at the Orianne Center for Indigo Conservation (Eustis, FL, USA) were randomly divided into two treatment groups. Semen was manually collected from each snake during the breeding season, with eight samples extended in INRA 96 and seven extended in Sperm Washing Medium. Samples were evaluated for motility immediately following extension and then every 24 h until motility reached 0%. Manual semen collection yielded viable semen samples in 50% (11/22) of the snakes, and most samples were contaminated with feces and urates. There was a significant difference in spermatozoa motility over time (P < 0.001) but not between semen extenders (P = 0.15). Modifying semen collection attempts in EIS and evaluating additional semen extenders will be required before successful ART practices can be implemented for this species.
Pentastomes are crustacean parasites that commonly use reptiles as hosts and are often referred to as lungworms but should not be confused with ophidian pulmonary rhabditiform nematode parasites, which are also known as lungworms. One pentastome of conservation concern is Raillietiella orientalis, a parasite associated with the invasive Burmese python (Python bivittatus) in Florida, USA. This parasite has been shown to affect many native snake species and has also found its way into the North American pet trade. Eleven wild-caught Florida snakes (nine eastern indigo snakes [Drymarchon couperi], one southern black racer [Coluber constrictor priapus], and one eastern coral snake [Micrurus fulvius]) were diagnosed with R. orientalis infection while in entrance quarantine following collection for a conservation program. All 11 snakes had the pentastomes removed through transcutaneous pulmonoscopy. The racer was humanely euthanized after being diagnosed with gastric cryptosporidiosis 2-wk postoperatively; the coral snake died 4 mo postoperatively of unknown causes; and one indigo snake was humanely euthanized 20 mo postoperatively after diagnosis of gastric neoplasia. These three snakes did not have pulmonary pentastomes identified on necropsy. The remaining eight eastern indigo snakes have tested negative for pentastomes for 2 yr following endoscopic removal. This suggests removal of adult R. orientalis through transcutaneous pulmonoscopy is an effective treatment option for raillietielliasis in snakes under human care.
A 5-yr-old male Mali uromastyx (Uromastyx maliensis) presented for decreased appetite, lethargy, and constipation of >6 wk duration. Physical examination revealed a firm, lobular mass present along the right aspect of the coelom extending from the midcoelom to the vent and a diffuse erythematous ventral coelomic coloration. Initial diagnostics included complete blood count (CBC), serum chemistry, a single lateral radiograph, and a brief ultrasound. The CBC and chemistry were clinically insignificant. Although diagnostics were limited due to client finances, the single radiograph and brief ultrasound supported a diagnosis of inspissated fecal material within the lower gastrointestinal tract. The patient was given an enema and started on anti-inflammatory medication, pain medication, and lactulose, and at-home vibration therapy was initiated to help break up the fecal mass. Little to no improvement in the colonic impaction was seen after 2 wk. The owner elected to proceed with an exploratory surgery where the colon was found to be exceedingly friable and tore along the proximal mesenteric border during handling. Resection and anastomosis of approximately 2 cm of the large bowel was completed uneventfully and the patient had an unremarkable postoperative recovery. Approximately 29 months after the procedure, this patient is well managed with intermittent medical interventions. Successful colonic resection and anastomosis are rarely reported in uromastyx species. This case supports that colonic resection and anastomosis may be a consideration in cases of severe, prolonged impactions with secondary bowel wall degradation.
A 19-yr-old captive-bred female leopard tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis) presented with intermittent episodes of hyporexia, lethargy, and lack of fecal output over a 6 mo period. The animal was initially treated for gastrointestinal parasitism and mycoplasmosis, resulting in temporary clinical improvement. However, 8 mo after the onset of the first clinical signs, the tortoise developed complete anorexia. A quantitative PCR (qPCR) was positive for testudine intranuclear coccidiosis (TINC) on a cloacal swab, and the male with whom she lived died simultaneously from systemic TINC (confirmed on histopathological examination). Long-term alternating treatment regimens with oral toltrazuril 20 mg/kg (every other day) and trimethoprim/ sulfamides 30 mg/kg (PO or IM), along with sustained nutritional support, led to a moderate and intermittent improvement in appetite, but qPCR tests remained positive for the next 4 mo. Negative qPCR results and resolution of clinical signs were obtained when oral paromomycin 100 mg/kg was added to toltrazuril (once a day for the last 7 d of toltrazuril therapy). Cloacal swab qPCRs remained negative during a 15-mo follow-up period. This report shows that multi-modal drug therapy, including paromomycin and long-term subtherapeutic doses of toltrazuril (20 mg/kg), resulted in clinical resolution and prolonged negative cloacal TINC qPCR results in one leopard tortoise.
Renal disease is a common ailment of captive reptiles that is often linked to chronic, subclinical states of dehydration. Currently, the diagnosis of renal disease in reptiles is poorly characterized and often relies on a renal tissue biopsy and histological examination for definitive diagnosis. A potential mechanism to further characterize renal dysfunction in reptiles is through the induction of dehydration via furosemide therapy. Furosemide is a loop diuretic and its efficacy in reptiles is poorly described; however, both the experimental and clinical utility of this medication has been documented in chelonian and squamate species. The goals of this project were to confirm the efficacy of furosemide administration, to better characterize the diagnostic findings of dehydration or reduced renal function, and to evaluate the utility of urine for the diagnosis of dehydration in the corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus). Five adult corn snakes (four males, one female) were used for this complete crossover study wherein snakes served as both treatment (10 mg/kg furosemide every 12 h for four doses; water withheld 48 h) and control (no furosemide, water withheld 48 h). Baseline blood and urine samples were collected, and water and food were withheld for 48 h. Blood and urine samples were recollected, and the snakes were given access to water and weighed every 12 h over the next 48 h. Urine and plasma osmolality measurements were determined via freezing point osmometry. The utility of furosemide in corn snakes was not confirmed based on the results of this study because the analysis of the hematologic, biochemical, and urine parameters postwater deprivation did not reveal a significant difference due to treatment. Significant decreases in weight and increases in total protein and urine specific gravity were found to be useful for the diagnosis of dehydration in corn snakes. Urine and plasma osmolarities were significantly increased due to water deprivation, but no significant difference was observed due to furosemide.
Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo) is an important fungal pathogen in snakes, often causing skin disease. This fungus has been detected in wild colubrid snakes in Germany, but its impact on populations is not well understood. The objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of Oo in multiple wild snake populations in Germany in 2023 and compare the results to those of a previous study in 2021 and 2022. In 2023, 217 samples from colubrid snakes were collected and tested for the presence of Oo via real-time PCR. The Oo prevalence in 2023 was 9.7% (21/217), similar to the detection rates in colubrids in 2021 (7/69, 10.1%) and 2022 (23/191, 12.0%). In 2023, Oo was detected in dice snakes (Natrix tessellata; 14/119, 11.8%), Aesculapian snakes (Zamenis longissimus; 5/33, 15.2%), and grass snakes (N. natrix; 2/18, 11.1%) but was not detected in green whip snakes (Hierophis viridiflavus; n = 30), smooth snakes (Coronella austriaca; n = 15), or banded grass snakes (N. helvetica; n = 2). Skin lesions were observed in 14.8% (32/217) of snakes. The presence of skin lesions was strongly associated with the detection of Oo (P < 0.001) with most Oo positive animals having skin lesions (17/21, 81.0%). Colubrids with skin lesions with concurrent Oo detection significantly increased temporally from 21.4% (3/14) in 2021, to 26.3% (5/19) in 2022, to 53.1% (17/32) in 2023 (P = 0.046). The percentage of Oo positive snakes in which skin lesions were observed varied significantly between 42.9% (3/7) in 2021, 21.7% (5/23) in 2022, and 81.0% (17/21) in 2023 (P < 0.001) but lacked a clear temporal trend. Although the Oo prevalence in colubrid snakes in Germany appears to be relatively stable, there is some indication that more of the snakes with Oo infections may be developing skin lesions. Further research is needed to continue to address potential population concerns regarding Oo.
A 3-yr-old male inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) was presented to the University of California–Davis Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital for lethargy and hematemesis. Initial diagnostics revealed a severe non-regenerative anemia. The patient was hospitalized and underwent medical management, including two blood transfusions and also antibiotic and antifungal therapy during hospitalization. Despite these treatments, the patient acutely declined after approximately 1 mo of hospitalization, and euthanasia was elected due to recurrence of hematemesis. A necropsy was performed, and histopathology revealed a disseminated lymphoma in the oropharynx, stomach, liver, kidney, lungs, and testis. This case report outlines the challenges encountered in diagnosing an unusual presentation of lymphoma in this species and in managing the resulting severe blood loss and anemia.
Hemogregarine coccidia in the genus Hepatozoon (Apicomplexa: Adeleina) are intraerythrocytic apicomplexan parasites. More than 300 species of Hepatozoon have been reported to infect amphibians, snakes, lizards, crocodilians, birds, fish, and mammals, but the occurrence of clinical disease is highly variable across species. In squamates, infection is generally characterized by an intraerythrocytic gamont stage and meronts containing merozoites in the liver, lungs, pancreas, and spleen. Severe infections can be associated with anemia and dehemoglobinization; however, infections are often subclinical. Individual reports of disease associated with hemogregarine infection in snakes do occur; therefore, there is a need to continue to investigate this poorly understood pathogen. This manuscript reports a case of hepatozoonosis in a captive Mexican black kingsnake (Lampropeltis nigrita). The snake exhibited ∼5 days of lethargy before being found deceased. The major findings on postmortem examination were pale lungs, a pale heart, and a small liver surrounded by pink-tinged coelomic effusion. Microscopically, inflammation and necrosis in the liver and pulmonary serosa adjacent to the liver were associated with paired, crescent-shaped organisms with small, basophilic nuclei, consistent with hemogregarines. Pan-coccidial qualitative PCR targeting the small subunit ribosomal RNA (18S) gene followed by Sanger sequencing identified a Hepatozoon sp. with 100% nucleotide identity to Hepatozoon musa characterized in green racers (Philodryas spp.) and other snake and amphibian species in Brazil and Uruguay. The means by which this snake became infected with this parasite is unknown.
Dystocia is well-documented in captive eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon couperi; EIS), and differences in plasma biochemical parameters have been noted between snakes that successfully oviposited versus those that had dystocia. The objectives of this study were to 1) measure 13 minerals in EIS eggshells from wild bred and captive bred snakes, and 2) determine if mineral content of EIS eggshells differed depending on the origin (wild bred Georgia vs. wild bred Florida vs. captive bred) and dystocia status (captive bred successfully hatched vs. dystocia) of the snakes. Four clutches of dried, previously hatched or surgically removed and stored eggshells were randomly selected for each EIS group, and three eggshells from within each clutch were randomly selected for analysis on a dry matter basis by spectroscopy. Differences were found between EIS origin groups for four minerals: manganese (F = 6.015, P = 0.006), selenium (F =32.6, P < 0.001), potassium (F= 3.976, P = 0.026), and zinc (F = 3.316, P = 0.050). Significant differences in eggshell mineral composition were also determined for dystocia vs. successfully oviposited captive bred EIS for: magnesium (F = 6.425, P = 0.016), phosphorus (F = 4.148, P = 0.016), and sodium (F = 5.287, P = 0.028). No significant difference in mineral content was found within clutch for any mineral. These findings suggest that differences in environment and diet may play a role in the mineral composition of EIS eggshells and further research is needed to further elucidate how these differences increase the risk of dystocia in captive EIS.
In veterinary medicine, a body condition score (BCS) is used as part of a physical examination, but few BCS systems exist for captive reptiles and none for the central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps). The first objective of this study was to collect body measurements and radiographs to estimate BCS and calculate a scaled mass index (SMI) in bearded dragons. The second objective was to measure the level of correlation and agreement between the BCS and SMI. The final objective was to develop a reference interval for SMI in bearded dragons. Sixty-one privately-owned bearded dragons were assessed. An initial coelomic fat body length was estimated by palpating each fat body between the cranial aspect of the rear limb and caudal aspect of the front limb, and then assigned a percentage based on the length said fat bodies filled the coelomic cavity. The presence or absence of axillary fat bodies and coverage of the trachea by the oropharyngeal fat body were also measured to estimate a BCS. Each animal also had the following measurements collected: weight, mid-body circumference, tail base circumference, and snout-vent length (SVL). The length of the coelomic fat bodies was then calculated as a percentage of total coelom length based on radiographic measurement. An ordinal BCS scale was developed with 1 being emaciated and 5 being obese. The palpated coelomic fat body length was highly correlated to this BCS system (r = 0.831, P < 0.001). Radiographic measurements of coelomic fat body length were also highly correlated to BCS (r = 0.846, P < 0.001). However, there was limited agreement and a systematic bias between the two measures (P < 0.0001; intercept A: -0.09; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.206 to -0.026). These results support the validity of the methods chosen to assign a BCS in this study, with the final BCS system based on coelomic, axillary, and oropharyngeal fat bodies.
Hyperviscosity syndrome (HVS) is a condition in human medicine where the patient’s blood becomes excessively thick or viscous, leading to neurological deficits, visual disturbances, and mucosal bleeding. While not commonly reported in veterinary medicine, the condition is typically associated with paraneoplastic syndromes, erythrocytosis, and hypergammaglobulinemia. HVS was first described in reptiles in 2008, and additional cases have subsequently been reported in various squamate species, including the eastern indigo snake (EIS, Drymarchon couperi), a threatened species native to the southeastern region of the US. The most common presentation of HVS in snakes is sudden death, necessitating an ante-mortem screening test. The aim of this study was to determine if plasma viscosity could be readily measured in EIS and whether the results could be associated with clinical disease. Plasma from 54 adult EIS in human care was evaluated with a portable viscometer ( micro VISC TM , RheoSense, Inc., San Ramon, CA, USA). The viscosity readings were also compared to select plasma analytes to check for correlations. There was not a significant difference in plasma viscosity between the sexes (P = 0.877), and these values were combined, creating a sample size large enough to compute a nonparametric reference interval of 1.915 – 4.778 cP with 90% confidence intervals of 1.872 – 2.096 cP and 4.562 – 4.780 cP, respectively. There was also a very high positive correlation of plasma viscosity with plasma total solids (⍴ = 0.90). Additionally, two case studies are briefly outlined where the plasma viscosity results support clinical disease and suggest acute and chronic presentations of HVS in EIS. Measurement of plasma viscosity may serve as a valuable ante-mortem diagnostic tool for early detection of HVS and related disorders in reptiles and further studies are needed to evaluate HVS case management options.
