Climate change poses challenges to agricultural production and the livelihoods of communities, particularly in climate-sensitive regions. Although farmers adopt a range of adaptation practices, the absence of a standardized and validated measurement tool limits the systematic assessment of these strategies. Therefore, the study aimed to develop and validate a scale to measure farmers’ adaptation strategies to climate change. The study was conducted in November-December 2025. An initial pool of 53 statements was generated through a literature review and expert consultation. After screening and refinement, 45 statements were subjected to expert judgment using a Likert summated rating approach to establish content validity. Statistical parameters, including Scale Value (S), Interquartile Range (Q), Relevancy Weightage (RW), Relevancy Percentage (RP), and Mean Relevancy Score (MRS) were used to evaluate and select items. Based on these criteria, 38 statements were finalised and organized into eight dimensions: crop adjustment and management, soil management and conservation, water management and conservation, nutrient management, livestock management, flood management, family resource/finance management, and labour use. The internal consistency of the scale was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, with values ranging from 0.795 to 0.861, indicating reliability across dimensions. The findings confirm that the instrument is valid and reliable for assessing farmers’ adaptation strategies and informing climate-resilient policy.
Indigenous leadership plays an important role in rural development, but Ninik Mamak’s specific contribution as an indigenous leader of the Minangkabau people to livestock development has not been empirically documented. Present research analyzes the influence of Ninik Mamak’s role on livestock development from technical, social, and economic aspects. A quantitative method was used in this study to collect data from 210 respondents from 42 livestock groups in West Sumatra Province. A validated and reliable Likert-scale questionnaire was employed for data collection, and multiple linear regression was used for data analysis. The results show that all regression models are statistically significant. Ninik Mamak’s decision-making role shows a strong positive effect on all aspects. However, the role of information dissemination does not show a significant impact, whereas the role of cooperation facilitation has significant negative effects on the technical and economic aspects. This study confirms that Ninik Mamak has a significant role in the development of farms with complex patterns. These findings introduce the concept of “selective complementarity” in institutional theory and recommend selective engagement strategies to optimize the role of indigenous leadership.
With the rise in processed food consumption and the spread of non-communicable diseases, the importance of food labels has grown to help prevent these issues and inform consumers about their dietary choices and their effects. A food label on pre-packed food products is very significant. It provides information on what we should eat or purchase. Label literacy means a person’s ability to understand, comprehend and utilise this information while purchasing pre-packed food items. In the modern world, people are so occupied with their lives that they often lack the time to eat, leading to a growing demand for packaged food products. This research was conducted to assess the level of understanding of food labels among individuals aged 18-25 in Delhi and Varanasi during August 2025. The study employed a survey method, gathering data through purposive sampling techniques. Data analysis was conducted using Excel. Findings reveal that most participants from both locations read nutritional labels easily, indicating understanding. A significant number of respondents say that the lack of time was the main challenge, while most approved nutritional labels are warning labels on food packets.
The study conducted during 2025 explores the contribution of digital platforms in strengthening agricultural extension services and empowering farmers in Uttar Pradesh, India. Using a cross-sectional survey of 400 farmer households selected by stratified random sampling, the study compares digital platform users and non-users in terms of knowledge, empowerment, technology adoption, yield, and income. Validated multi-item scales and indices were used to measure perceived usefulness, digital use, and empowerment, which were supported by reliability and factor analysis. Group differences were tested with t tests and chi-square statistics, while logistic regression assessed the probability of adopting at least three recommended practices, and a multiple regression modelled the determinants of empowerment. The results show that even after controlling for socio-economic and extension variables, digital platform users have significantly higher knowledge, empowerment scores, adoption indices, yield, and net farm income than non-users. Structural analysis shows that digital use influences empowerment both directly and indirectly through knowledge and information self-efficacy, underscoring the role of digital platforms as catalysts to drive the transition from consultation to empowerment.
Farmers’ perceptions of risks related to climate change significantly influence their adaptation behaviour and their responses to climatic stressors. The present study sought to develop and standardize a valid and reliable scale to quantify farmers’ risk perception of climate change. Using the Likert summated rating technique, an initial pool of 70 statements was generated based on a review of the literature and consultation with experts. After systematic editing and relevancy testing through expert judgment, 45 statements were screened, and 28 statements were subjected to item analysis using responses from 40 farmers in a non-sampled area. Based on discriminating power (‘t’ value > 1.75) and reliability criteria, 22 statements were finally selected for inclusion in the scale. The reliability of the scale was established using Cronbach’s alpha, which exceeded the acceptable threshold of 0.70, representing high internal consistency. Content validity was ensured through comprehensive coverage of climate-related risks affecting crop, livestock and livelihood systems. The final scale enables categorization of farmers into low, medium and high levels of climate change risk perception. The developed scale is a useful tool for researchers, extension professionals and policymakers to assess farmers’ risk perception and to design location-specific, evidence-based climate change adaptation and extension interventions.
As information and communication technologies and precision agriculture instruments are integrated, agricultural management techniques are being enhanced. Through improved input applications, communication across various hardware and datasets, and reduced production costs, this integration intends to improve the sustainability of the sugarcane crop production system. Many sugarcane farmers, especially smallholders, continue to face low profitability, increased input prices, labour shortages, and limited benefits from institutional and digital innovations despite consistent research investment and technical advancements. The research tried to understand sugarcane-growing farmers’ viewpoints and experiences about digitalization and challenges in sugarcane farming. In the Kushinagar district of Uttar Pradesh, exploratory-descriptive qualitative research was carried out at the Deoria Sugarcane Committee’s Jaura Bazar Centre “A” between October 2023 and January 2025. A pre tested semi-structured guide was used to conduct in-depth, in-person interviews with purposively recruited twenty-four sugarcane producers. Interviews were audio recorded, verbatim transcribed, and subjected to thematic analysis using NVivo 15. Results show significant discrepancies between farmers’ lived experiences, extension services, and agricultural research. Technical innovations like online slip generation, digital payment systems, and digitization have increased operational efficiency and transparency. Adoption was hampered by low digital literacy, limited access to advanced technology, insufficient extension assistance, and poor institutional coordination.
Tea cultivation on a small scale plays a crucial role in employment generation in rural areas of Assam and has contributed a lion’s share to the state’s tea production. But the small tea growers (STGs) are facing many challenges, and a lack of fairness in the pricing of green tea leaves creates threats to their sustainability. The study assessed STGs’ perception towards the pricing of green tea leaves in Dibrugarh district of Assam. 379 samples were selected purposively from 3 tea-producing blocks of the district, and data were collected using a structured interview schedule. STGs’ perception towards pricing was examined with the help of a scale, calculated on the basis of 12 statements related to three approaches: distributive fairness, procedural fairness and interactional fairness. The market of green tea leaves was dominated by the buyers, where the STGs play a minimal role in price realisation.51.72% of STGs perceived the pricing of tea leaves as unfair, and 25.32% considered it highly unfair. Area of cultivation and the number of selling options were found to have a significant positive correlation with STGs’ perception. Initiatives to improve market infrastructure and automation of processing units are needed to ensure a fair pricing mechanism.
The study examined the entrepreneurial behaviour of 160 rural youth during 2024-25, through a cross-sectional survey design. Using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) multiple regression analysis, assessed the influence of socioeconomic, informational, and behavioural factors on entrepreneurial tendencies. Entrepreneurial behaviour was conceptualized as a composite of innovativeness (mean = 26.87), achievement motivation (mean = 20.53), and risk orientation (mean = 21.49). The regression model explained 36.14% of the variance in entrepreneurial behavior. Age emerged as a significant negative predictor (β = –0.32, p = 0.001), indicating that younger youth were more entrepreneurial. Annual income was the strongest positive predictor (β = 1.7 × 10–5 , p < 0.001), highlighting the critical role of economic capacity. Knowledge level showed a marginally positive association (p = 0.055), while education and mass media exposure were non-significant. Notably, 73.12% of respondents exhibited medium-level entrepreneurship, suggesting substantial untapped potential. The findings underscore that rural youth entrepreneurship is fundamentally conditioned by economic resources and age-cohort effects, with implications for extension programmes and policy targeting resource constraints rather than motivation alone. Tailored interventions addressing capital access, practical skill development, and risk-reduction mechanisms are essential for converting latent entrepreneurial potential into active enterprise creation among rural youth.
The study conducted in the year 2025 developed and standardised a valid and dependable psychometric scale to assess vegetable growers’ entrepreneurial behaviour. An initial pool of 76 statements was produced using Likert’s summated rating approach. Following editing, 86 experts tested the statements for relevancy using mean relevancy score, relevancy weightage, and relevancy percentage. The crucial ratio (t-value) method was used to analyse the replies of 60 vegetable growers who were chosen from non-sample locations. 33 statements were ultimately chosen to be included in the scale based on discrimination power. The split- half approach was used to determine the instrument’s reliability, and the results showed excellent internal consistency and elevated levels of Cronbach’s alpha value (0.891 and 0.955) and a satisfactory Guttman Split- half Coefficient (0.720). Expert judgement was used to guarantee content reliability and validity. Researchers, extension specialists, and legislators should find the developed scale to be a helpful tool for evaluating entrepreneurial behaviour and creating need based interventions to improve the entrepreneurial skills of vegetable growers.
The study examined the effectiveness of Kisan Call Centre (KCC) as an ICT-enabled extension tool in disseminating improved wheat cultivation knowledge among Prayagraj district’s farmers, during 2023-24. A purposive sampling design was employed to select 120 wheat farmers from Chaka block who had utilized KCC services. Data were collected through structured interviews and analysed using descriptive statistics, Chi-square test, and correlation analysis. Results revealed that while 93.49% of farmers were aware of KCC’s existence, their knowledge of advanced extension services remained limited. Only 17.88% had a complete understanding of KCC objectives, and awareness about weather advisories (9.94%), conference call facilities (8.13%), and governing agencies (8.13%) was poor. Knowledge distribution showed 50.83% farmers in the medium category, 41.67% in the high category, and 7.50% in the low knowledge category. Chi-square analysis indicated a significant association between age and knowledge levels (χ² = 166.66, p<0.01), with younger farmers demonstrating better ICT adoption. Education and occupation showed no significant association with knowledge levels. Correlation analysis revealed strong positive relationships between knowledge and social participation (r=0.827), mass media exposure (r=0.735), and information source diversity (r=0.749). These findings provide crucial insights for extension administrators to develop farmer-centric ICT strategies for effective agricultural extension.
The growing demand for energy and the rising costs of traditional irrigation methods have increased the need for sustainable options in agriculture. Solar water pumps are a practical and eco-friendly choice, especially in regions with high solar exposure like Jammu and Kashmir. According to data collected from JAKEDA (2024), a total of 1,309 beneficiaries have used solar water pumps under the PM-KUSUM scheme. The study conducted during 2025, evaluated how adopting solar water pumps affects important agricultural aspects, such as irrigation costs, crop production, crop quality, diversification, and plant growth in three selected districts, namely; Anantnag, Pulwama, and Baramulla (with a large number of functioning solar water pumps). By applying the results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test to data collected from growers, significant differences between the conditions before and after adoption were recorded. A significant decrease in labor and diesel expenses, along with notable gains in both crop yield and quality, was found. Diversified crops with high market value have improved, and overall plant growth has seen considerable progress since adopting solar water pumps.
Most social marketing practices focus on measurable behaviour change, but few examine self-orientation as the foundation of social change. This research was conducted in 2025 to analyse how the Professional Mother community uses social marketing as a developmental communication strategy to encourage changes in maternal self-orientation before behavioural changes occur. This research employs a qualitative case study design, including in-depth interviews with 5 informants from national and regional administrators, participatory observation of online and offline learning activities, and analysis of organisational documents. The results show that the social marketing mix is carried out in an integrated manner through segmentation based on life phases and learning needs, social products in the form of self-orientation towards the “best version of oneself”, social pricing in the form of non-material commitments, distribution through multi-channel communication ecosystems, and promotion through value framing, role model, member participation, and public event space. This approach fosters reflective awareness and identity, enabling behaviour change to occur gradually and sustainably. These findings highlight that social marketing as a participatory extension model can enhance sustainable behavioural change through self-orientation and identity formation.
The study was conducted in 2026 in the East Champaran district of Bihar to examine the relationship between environmental awareness and behavioural adoption among high school students. A descriptive survey design was employed, and primary data were collected from 300 students of Classes IX and X selected through stratified random sampling from four secondary schools. A structured questionnaire was used to measure environmental awareness, understanding of environmental issues and behavioural adoption using a five-point Likert scale. The results revealed that students possessed a moderate level of environmental awareness (Mean = 3.60) and understanding (Mean = 3.42), whereas behavioural adoption was comparatively lower (Mean = 3.25). The paired t test indicated a statistically significant difference between awareness and behavioural adoption scores (p < 0.01), confirming the presence of an awareness–action gap. Chi square analysis showed that demographic variables such as gender and class level were not significantly associated with environmental awareness. In contrast, climate change awareness was significantly associated with carbon reduction behaviour. The findings suggest that awareness alone is insufficient to ensure consistent environmental practices. Strengthening experiential and participatory environmental education at the school level may help translate environmental knowledge into sustained behavioural engagement.
The rapid expansion of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) has reshaped agricultural extension, offering scalable pathways for disseminating timely, location-specific information to farmers. Horticulture crops are highly perishable in nature and decision-making time-sensitive; the effectiveness of e-extension systems depends strongly on farmers’ awareness and understanding of digital advisories. This present study, conducted during 2025, aimed to construct a scientifically valid and reliable index to measure the awareness of horticultural farmers towards e-extension services. Based on an extensive literature review, expert consultations and field insights, 112 statements were initially generated across three conceptual domains: general awareness about e extension, awareness of public e-extension services, and awareness of private e-extension services. Following rigorous screening using Edward’s criteria and relevancy testing by 70 experts, 48 statements met the established criteria of Relevancy Weightage (>0.80) and Mean Relevancy Score (> OMRS = 2.44). The index was validated through field administration among 60 horticultural farmers in non-sampled areas. Reliability analysis indicated excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.951) and strong split-half reliability (Spearman-Brown coefficient = 0.936). The validated index provides a robust measurement framework to assess awareness gaps and strengthen ICT-enabled advisory systems, thereby enhancing the accessibility, effectiveness, and impact of e-extension services in the horticultural sector.
The study analysed the constraints of entrepreneurial behaviour of vegetable growers in South Odisha and identified priority interventions for agripreneurial development. Using an exploratory design, the data collection was carried out from 240 vegetable growers using the structured interview method in 2025. Constraint severity and suggestion priority were calculated with weighted mean scores and ranking, and seven components to explain 100% variance were extracted by P.C.A., with the first three components explaining 57.2%. Results showed that the biggest constraints were untimely availability of inputs (Mean = 2.154), non-sanction of credit required (2.146), low price in market in the presence of market glut (2.079), and inadequate training (2.033). Major supports as suggested by farmers were insurance coverage in bad situations (2.279), organising vegetable growers (2.233). The findings revealed that the performance of agripreneurs is limited by the interlinked market, financial, technology, and institutional factors. Strengthening the coordination of market regulation, flexible credit systems, post-harvest infrastructure, and organisation of farmers is crucial in improving entrepreneurial capacity and the sustainability of income for vegetable growers.
The study examines global research trends on the role of Extension Advisory Services (EAS) in advancing Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) from 1984 to 2024. Data retrieved from the Scopus database were analysed using VOS viewer and the R-based Bibliometrix package to map publication trends, citation influence, collaboration networks, and thematic evolution. The results show a sharp rise in research output after 2015, coinciding with global policy momentum following the FAO’s CSA framework and the Paris Agreement. Collaboration networks reveal strong linkages between African and European institutions, reflecting an emphasis on participatory and farmer-oriented approaches. Keyword and thematic analyses indicate a transition from conceptual discussions on extension and adaptation toward applied research focused on capacity building, innovation systems, and behavioural change. The findings highlight the critical role of EAS in enabling sustainable agricultural transformation. Strengthening institutional capacity, digital integration, and regional collaboration remains essential for enhancing the effectiveness of EAS in building climate resilience. Overall, EAS functions as the operational backbone of CSA by translating knowledge into adaptive, farm level actions.
This study endeavours to develop and validate a multidimensional tool for the assessment of 21st century skills among college-going students during 2024-25 at Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi. Initially, 120 items were identified through a comprehensive literature review. Experts from the teaching and research domains reviewed these items, and their feedback was incorporated to refine the tool, resulting in 56 items. The refined tool was administered to 350 respondents. The construct validity was established through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and subsequently confirmed through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to ascertain the adequacy of the model fit. EFA revealed that the seven-factor structure accounted for a substantial proportion of the total variance. The CFA of the 54-item 21st-century skills assessment tool identified seven factors with good internal consistency. CFA indicated that items were loaded on the relevant factors and evidenced satisfactory model fit indices. The reliability of the tool was established by the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, which yielded a value of 0.81. Thus, the tool was indicated to be relevant for college students and served as a valuable metric to assess college students’ 21st century skills.
