The tropical Lake Rawa Pening, designated by presidential decree as one of Indonesia's national priority lakes, is crucial to the region's biodiversity and ecosystem services. This study analysed the biodiversity of fish species in the lake using Illumina paired-end sequencing, yielding 125,374 reads. The analysis identified 34 taxa across 11 orders and 16 families, with high similarity between sampling sites (0.91–1.00). Order Cypriniformes dominated the fish community, representing 41.80 % of average reads. Conversely, Order Clupeiformes had the lowest total reads count at 0.11 %. Significant presence was also observed for Order Cichliformes (19.90 %) and Order Anabantiformes (19.18 %). At the species level, Channa micropeltes was the most dominant species (11.07 %), followed by Osteochilus vittatus (10.70 %), Amphilophus labiatus (9.63 %), and Ctenopharyngodon idella (8.94 %). Native species accounted for 54.7 % of the total reads, while introduced species comprised 43.3 %, including invasive (31.7 %) and non-invasive species (11.6 %). The high presence and dominance of invasive species underscore the need for targeted conservation and management efforts. It is recommended that biodiversity monitoring be promptly initiated in other nationally prioritised lakes, as biodiversity is crucial for ecosystem health and resilience.
The fisheries sector in Malaysia is important for food security and the national economy. However, fish populations in Malaysian waters, especially the capture fisheries, are gradually declining due to overexploitation, climate change, poor water quality, and habitat destruction. As a result, aquaculture has emerged as an important solution to address the depletion of fish stocks in Malaysia. Aquaculture not only reduces the pressure on wild fish populations, but it also contributes to economic growth and sustainability. This review offers an overview of the current state of aquaculture in Malaysia, noting existing strengths in areas such as wastewater management policies, zonation for aquaculture activities, established practices, and successful research projects. Despite these foundations, the industry faces numerous challenges including a lack of biosecurity measures, spatial constraints, resource dependency, and technological lag. In response, this review highlights the concerted efforts needed to address these challenges, with a focus on implementing robust aquaculture biosecurity, improving aquafeed management, and promoting further research and development. This review also aims to guide the path toward sustainable aquaculture practices, emphasising the critical aspects of assimilative capacity and research and technological advancement. The adoption of these innovative practices and technologies presents a clear pathway for Malaysia to enhance the efficiency and long-term sustainability of its aquaculture sector.
This study applies a systematic literature review of 53 scientific articles on technical efficiency (TE) analysis in fisheries, focusing on determinants of efficiency, especially subsidies. Stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) was applied in ¾ of the papers, with data envelopment analysis (DEA) in the remainder. Only five articles discuss subsidies as determinants of TE. Owner/crew characteristics and vessel/gear characteristics were the most investigated determinant of efficiency in the literature. The experience of the former increased TE, while the latter showed diverging results, and subsidies increased efficiency. The paper discusses problems surrounding analysis of subsidies in TE analysis, and underlines use of newer models such as the robust and conditional DEA framework, accounting for the presence of outliers and allowing control for the influence of external factors potentially affecting the production process. Moreover, the findings indicate that studies of the subsidy -efficiency nexus lack analysis of TE over time. This is important since the subsidies, especially in open access fisheries, could lead to fish stock depletion, thereby diminishing TE over time. Subsidies could compensate for the reduction in TE, but in the long run, they also enable t he continued depletion of stocks. Thus, unless subsidies rise more significantly than the adverse effects of overfishing on an open access fishery, TE may be expected to decrease over time. Future studies should focus on the relationship between type of subsidy and TE to help policymakers choose the most appropriate subsidy. This since governments often intervene heavily to support fisheries livelihoods, potentially distorting market signals and causing overexploitation.
The guppy Poecilia reticulata (Peters, 1859), native to South America, is now an established invasive species in the ecologically sensitive Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot in India, yet its invasion biology in the region remains poorly understood. This study examines the dietary habits of invasive guppy populations in the Bonacaud Forest Range of the Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, southern Western Ghats, India. A total of 130 individuals (38 males, 92 females; 10–37.6 mm in total length) were analysed. Their diet was dominated by midge fly larvae (34.18 %) and algae (32.15 %), followed by miscellaneous items including fibres, sand, and mud (11.95 %). Insect remains (Hemiptera, Coleoptera) accounted for 9.09 % of the diet, with smaller contributions from detritus (5.94 %), zooplankton (2.49 %), nereid larvae (2.03 %), fish remains (1.74 %), and arachnids (0.43 %). Frequency-of-occurrence analysis similarly identified Chironomidae larvae (27.53 %) and algae (25.87 %) as the most common food items. Feeding intensity assessments indicated that none of the fish had empty stomachs; most showed moderate (29 %) or good (28 %) fullness, with additional full (15 %), poor (17 %), and gorged (11 %) conditions. Larger individuals exhibited greater consumption, supported by gastrosomatic index values. Microplastics - primarily polyamide (PA) and polyethylene (PE) fibres - were detected in the gut, with a mean abundance of 1.03 ± 0.42 items per fish, and scanning electron microscopy confirmed evidence of microplastic degradation. These findings underscore the need for further research to evaluate the ecological impacts of invasive guppy populations on freshwater biodiversity in the Western Ghats across spatial and temporal scales.
Given the abundance and cost-effectiveness of catching sandbar sharks (Carcharhinus plumbeus), their muscle protein may serve as a valuable alternative protein source, particularly for the elderly, while also promoting the sustainable utilisation of marine resources. Food-processing protease is an effective tool to improve the texture and taste of food, enhancing intake in elderly people. The utilisation of sandbar shark muscle as a functional food ingredient was investigated through protease hydrolysis and the identification of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides. Among various protease treatments, Papain W-40, Protin SD-AC10F, and Thermoase PC10F hydrolysis exhibited stronger inhibition. By comparing protease reaction times and IC50 values, we determined the optimal condition to be Thermoase PC10F for 12 h, which yielded the highest ACE inhibitory activity with minimal bitterness. Fractionation of the hydrolysate revealed multiple potential active peptides, with the most potent fraction containing an active peptide identified as Ala-Phe. The synthesised Ala-Phe exhibited an IC50 of 93.8 μg.mL⁻¹ and demonstrated a non-competitive inhibition mechanism against ACE. This study highlights the potential of sandbar shark muscle hydrolysates as a novel functional food ingredient with antihypertensive properties.
The issue of abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) has been recognised for decades. This study aims to provide the current profile of marine capture fisheries of five selected Southeast Asian countries (Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand), update the status of ALDFG in the coastal and marine areas of the five selected countries, and provide recommendations to address ALDFG and related issues. A desktop study was applied to obtain secondary data from various sources, and a questionnaire was used to obtain primary data from key informants. The five selected countries contributed significant fisheries production to the global markets through their multi-gear and multi-species fisheries. We also found that the common ALDFGs include gillnets, traps, and hooks and lines; with other potential sources of ALDFG as anchored fish aggregating devices, trawl nets, and fishing gear components. Our study categorised the impacts of ALDFGs into ecological, economic, and human well-being aspects. There have been various initiatives and projects carried out in the five selected countries to address ALDFG. For ALDFG management, we described the related legislation and national plan of action frameworks, the resolutions and management measures of regional fisheries management organizations, and the tools of inter-governmental bodies. The five selected countries had similar limitations/gaps in ALDFG including insufficient baseline information, weak ALDFG retrieval programs, and poor end-of-life fishing gear (EOLFG) management, while we found that the needs/recommendations of the five selected countries were similar. We provided recommendations to support fisheries stakeholders in the Southeast Asian region.
The mangrove red snapper Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskål, 1775) is a high value, euryhaline marine fish with potential as a species for freshwater aquaculture. This study evaluated the growth and cost efficiency of the species in floating net cage in a freshwater lake comparing two feed treatments (each with three replicates): (1) trash fish; and (2) commercial dry pellets, fed to apparent satiation. Fish were reared for seven months in 5 x 5 x 3 m3 net cages at a stocking rate of 5 fish.m-2. Snappers fed trash fish achieved significantly higher (P < 0.05) weight gain (mean ± SE = 345.7 ± 2.2 g), absolute growth rate (1.65 ± 0.01 g.day-1) and specific growth rate (1.44 ± 0.04 %.day-1) than snappers fed the commercial feed (282.4 ± 11.85 g, 1.34 ± 0.06 g.day-1 and 1.28 ± 0.02 %.day-1, respectively). Survival rate was (>90 %) in both treatments and did not differ significantly different between treatments (P > 0.05): it was 93.24 ± 0.59 % for trash fish and 93.82 ± 0.30 % for the commercial feed. The food conversion ratio (FCR) was much greater for the trash fish treatment (4.96 ± 0.01) than the commercial feed (1.59 ± 0.05). Both treatments were economically feasible with benefit-cost ratios of 0.81 and 0.63, respectively, but with relatively higher total sales and net income, benefit cost ratio and return on investment (ROI) and lower payback period for trash fish fed snapper. This study demonstrates the feasibility of rearing mangrove red snapper in cages in a freshwater lake at 3 fish m-2 density using trash fish as feeds.
Acoustic datasets offer considerable advantages in high-resolution seagrass habitat mapping applications. However, the nature of seafloor features for seagrass habitat on a habitat suitability model (HSM) is limited due to single–species output. Classifying the seafloor features suitable for seagrass habitat using supervised classification is propitious for explaining the potential distribution of seagrass habitat. An integrated approach is adopted between HSM and the seafloor classification map, which can simultaneously illustrate predicted seagrass habitat with suitable seafloor features. Acoustic data were acquired using a multibeam echosounder (MBES) in Redang Marine Park. Multibeam echosounder predictors, including the bathymetric map, slope, eastness, northness, and curvature, backscatter mosaic 32-bit and 8-bit, grey-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) texture features (homogeneity, entropy, correlation), and angular range analysis (ARA) parameters (phi and characterisation), were derived. Maximum entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm was used to produce the seagrass habitat suitability model (SHSM), while random forest (RF) algorithm was utilised to produce the seafloor classification map. As for the ground-truthing, seagrass occurrence data were used to train and test the SHSM. Improved seagrass habitat mapping information was introduced by integrating habitat suitability index, suitable seafloor features for seagrass habitat (i.e., seagrass on fine sand, seagrass on coarse sand, fine sand, and coarse sand), and suitable depth for seagrass habitat. The proposed integration approach has produced a detailed map of seascape and seagrass. The seascape seagrass map will provide decision-makers, such as the marine park authority, with helpful information for managing seagrass habitats.
The Kheyadaha Wetland, located in the eastern suburbs of Kolkata, West Bengal, India, known for its rich biodiversity, has faced severe threats from invasive alien fish species (IAFS) such as Clarias gariepinus, disrupting the ecosystem and impacting local livelihoods. A comprehensive survey from April 2022 to September 2023 identified ten main IAFS, highlighting their detrimental effects on native species through competition and predation. This study addressed these challenges by promoting sustainable aquaculture practices, transitioning farmers from cultivating invasive species to indigenous fish like Indian major carps. The project incorporated low-cost fish feed production, value-added products, and market linkages, significantly increasing farmers' annual income. Community engagement through training, awareness programs, and capacity-building initiatives fostered a shift towards indigenous species cultivation, enhancing biodiversity conservation and economic resilience. The project's success underscores the importance of interdisciplinary collaborations and evidence-based policy formulation in invasive species management. By empowering local communities and promoting sustainable practices, the project serves as a model for effective biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihoods in wetland ecosystems. Continued investment in such initiatives is crucial for safeguarding ecological integrity and economic sustainability, ensuring long-term resilience and environmental harmony in wetland regions.
This study assessed the status of shrimp fishery in the Jaffna Lagoon a decade after the civil conflict. Fortnightly field visits from January 2022 to December 2023 were conducted to collect data from six major landing sites. Approximately 5,000 fishers were engaged in lagoon shrimp fishing, using fyke nets (89.8 %), lagoon seine nets (9.2 %), manual picking (0.3 %), and the kandi method (0.1 %). Shrimp CPUE was higher for lagoon seine nets (3.5 ± 1.5 kg fishermen-1 day-1) than fyke nets (1.6 ± 0.8 kg fishermen-1day-1; P< 0.05; t-test). Total shrimp landings were 1,551 MT in 2022 and 1,331 MT in 2023, while bycatch landings were 1,202 MT in 2022 and 1,103 MT in 2023. Although catches declined slightly between years, the difference was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Fifteen penaeid shrimp species were identified in the catches, including eight newly recorded species. Penaeus semisulcatus was the dominant species (44 %), followed by Metapenaeus monoceros (30 %) and Metapenaeus moyebi (12.9 %) – these three species accounted for over 85 % of the catch. A total of 50 bycatch species from 20 families were documented, with the Portunidae contributing the largest share (39 %), followed by the Terapontidae (25 %) and Gerreidae (18 %). Shrimp catch rates declined from the lagoon mouth toward the interior, while shrimp sizes increased along this gradient. The findings highlight intense fishing pressure on juvenile stages of P. semisulcatus and M. monoceros and highlight the need for sustainable management practices.
Silver tigerfish Datnioides polota (Hamilton, 1822), is one of three ornamental fish species within the genus Datnioides that are native to Indonesia. Currently, the silver tigerfish is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as a species of Least Concern (LC), indicating a low risk of extinction. This species is found from the South Asia to Southeast Asia, with a population in Indonesia found in South Sumatra and West Kalimantan. Research on this species has predominantly focused on reproductive biology and ecology, while its phenotypic and genotypic characterisation largely remains unexplored. Phenotypic characterisation can be assessed through morphometrics, and meristic approaches. In contrast, genotypic studies can utilise molecular tools, including DNA barcoding, microsatellite markers, and whole-genome sequencing (WGS). Genetic information currently available for silver tigerfish in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) public database is limited to mitochondrial genome data. To date, no specific genome annotation has been documented for the silver tigerfish, highlighting the need for further studies to understand its genetics more completely. This is the first integrated review of D. polota, addressing critical gaps in genetic knowledge and promoting biodiversity conservation and sustainable management of these ornamental species.
Biodegradable packaging holds significant potential for the seafood industry as a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to traditional packaging materials. With growing concerns about plastics and their environmental impact, there is a strong demand for innovative solutions. The use of biodegradable packaging aligns with consumer preferences for sustainable and eco-friendly products. The challenges include the scalability, cost-effectiveness, and the need for standardised labelling to differentiate genuine biodegradable packaging. This article discusses the potential of biodegradable packaging in the seafood industry as a promising, sustainable solution to reduce plastic waste, aligning with consumer preferences, and maintaining product quality.
The popular coldwater fish, the rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792), was first brought to the Indian subcontinent in the 20th century and was established in the coldwater upland regions. This study examines the molecular phylogenetic linkages and genetic divergence of the O. mykiss that was introduced in India's North-Western Himalayas and Southern Western Ghats. The genetics of Indian O. mykiss are compared with Pacific trout in the genus Oncorhynchus. Twenty-two accessions were gathered from four distinct geographic regions, and the nBLAST homology method was used to analyse the 650 bp mtDNA COX1 segment. The results showed an intra-species divergence of 0.0 %–0.4 %, which confirms the study species to be O. mykiss. However, including nine other Oncorhynchus populations from the Pacific lineage resulted in an inter-species divergence of 0.2 % to 1.7 %. Phylogenetic analysis by the Bayesian and BEAST methods showed a distinct lineage of Pacific trout and salmon groups in separate clades. The phylogenetic trees obtained confirmed that O. clarkii was a sister clade to O. mykiss, O. gilae, and O. g. apache. All of the Pacific salmonid species were clearly distinguished from the clade that contained the Indian O. mykiss stocks. The study's findings fill the current knowledge gap about the genetic composition of Indian O. mykiss stocks in comparison to other stocks throughout the world and provide insight into how to manage the genetic variety of Indian O. mykiss stocks.
Liming has long been a common practice in the management of aquaculture ponds. This practice aims at sanitising the pond bottom between crops and improving the pond’s buffering capacity for water quality stabilisation. Liming can also improve bottom soil pH and enrich pond water with calcium and magnesium. Methods for estimating a pond’s lime requirement (LR) are of crucial importance because they provide pond managers with appropriate lime rates to maintain or improve the buffering capacity of aquaculture ponds. Regardless of the recent, rapid development of the aquaculture sector, LR methods for ponds have not yet been well-developed. Qualitative methods (e.g. using a single or multiple parameters of water and soil properties) have still been used in rural areas where access to laboratories is difficult. Quantitative methods (e.g. buffer methods) have not yet been widely used due to their inherent restrictions. Each of the LR methods can be used under specific targets for liming or pond conditions. The titration-based Kbicarbonate method has yielded the highest pond LR and seems superior to the other methods regarding accuracy, simplicity, cost, and environmental safety. It is a promising method for use in aquaculture ponds globally and deserves further investigation.
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a significant global threat, with antibiotic misuse in aquaculture being a key contributor. This study assesses antimicrobial use (AMU), particularly antibiotics, in the fisheries sector of Malaysia. Data were collected from 297 respondents across 9 of 13 states (2017–2022), including farmers (230), fish exporters (22), feed suppliers (8), veterinary clinics (16), aquatic health professionals (4), zoo/aquatic park managers (7), aquaculture researchers (4) and government hatchery managers (6). Additional evidence was gathered from monitoring programs, literature reviews, and agency reports. The results revealed that only 18 (7.5 %) fish/shrimp farmers used antibiotics, with oxytetracycline being the most common antibiotic (33 %). Other antibiotics include erythromycin, amoxicillin, ampicillin, enrofloxacin, trimethoprim-sulfadiazine, and florfenicol. The maximum annual usage was 40 kg for oxytetracycline, 1 kg for florfenicol, and 0.2 kg for enrofloxacin. Antibiotics were primarily used for treatment (56 %) and never used as growth promoters. Most farmers obtain veterinary prescriptions prior to use. Antibiotic application in aquatic theme parks and R&D was minimal and controlled. These findings suggest that antibiotic use in Malaysian aquaculture is relatively low compared with global trends, reflecting progress toward sustainable practices. However, broader surveys are needed for comprehensive AMU data. This study highlights the importance of continued monitoring, education, and enforcement of responsible antibiotic use to mitigate AMR risks and informs policy development for sustainable aquaculture in Malaysia.
Asian clam populations in natural water bodies have been jeopardised due to overfishing and habitat loss recently. Consequently, the clam production for local consumption has declined and requires new avenues to compensate for this decline. Comprehending the reproductive characteristics of Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea) is important for seed production in aquaculture due to their hermaphroditic characteristics. This study investigates the reproductive characteristics and gonadal development of captive C. fluminea broodstocks reared for 24 wk in a recirculating aquaculture system (RAS). The condition index (CI), gonad index (GI), and histological analysis were completed to assess reproductive traits and gonadal development. The results show that broodstocks achieved optimal CI (>2.5) by the third month, peaking at 3.55 in the fourth month. Asynchronous spawning and heterogeneous gonad development patterns were observed, with active spawning during the conditioning phase. Histology reveals that C. fluminea is a hermaphrodite that possess ovo-testes at different stages regardless of the clam size. The body condition significantly influences gametogenesis, and the CI was correlated with GI. The reproductive cycle has four stages: resting/spent, development (gametogenesis), maturity, and spawning. Our comprehensive study of the reproductive characteristics and gonadal development underscores the substantial potential of C. fluminea in hatcheries to propagate and facilitate seed production for Asian clam aquaculture.
The study investigates the shelf life of the spotfin flathead Grammoplites suppositus (Platycephalidae) under chilled storage (2–4 °C) conditions using two distinct packaging techniques – air packaging (AP) and vacuum packaging (VP). The quality was evaluated using physio-chemical (pH), trimethylamine (TMA), total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN), free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), thiobarbituric acid (TBA), colour and texture, microbiological (total viable count, TVC), psychrotrophic count (PC), lactic acid bacteria, Pseudomonas, hydrogen sulphide producing bacteria,Brochothrix thermosphacta and sensory analysis. A heterogeneous quality pattern was observed during the chilled storage. A significant correlation was observed between the TVBN and TVC values. Brochothrix was identified as a significant spoilage bacterium in VP samples. The AP samples remained fresh for up to 15 days and VP samples extended the shelf life for up to 18 days, supported by TVC and sensory assessments, indicating the superior effectiveness of vacuum packaging in preserving G. suppositus. This study contributes to the utilisation of G. suppositus, an underutilised fish species to facilitate the development of new products and enhance market opportunities, ultimately promoting its commercial viability and reducing wastage.
The shellfish industry in Western Australia (WA) is expanding and, as part of the WA Shellfish Quality Assurance Program (WASQAP), microalgal populations need to be sampled. This is detailed in the WA Marine Biotoxin Monitoring and Management Plan (MBMMP) where alert levels for potentially toxic algae species have been set. The current research conducted water sampling over a 4-year period, from two pearl farms at the Abrolhos Islands, one near Rat Island and one near Pelsaert Island. Samples were Lugol preserved on-site and then analysed by Dalcon Environmental, Australia. Phytoplankton results included abundance data and percentage of the sample on all taxa, with mention of any potentially toxic microalgae. Only one sample revealed numbers of a potential toxin producer - (PTP, Pseudo-nitzschia “seriata” group H. Peragallo, 1900), above the alert level. Subsequent toxin analysis of frozen, flesh samples, taken on the same day, from cultured penguin pearl oysters, Pteria penguin (Röding, 1798), grown at the same site, were found to be negative for paralytic shellfish toxin (PST), amnesic shellfish toxin (AST), diarrhetic shellfish toxin (DST) and pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) by Symbio Labs in Sydney, NSW, Australia. Other phytoplankton sampling during this study, found very low levels of several other PTP’s but with no incidences exceeding the MBMMP alert levels. The difficulty in identifying PTP’s fully to species level and the variability in toxin production by closely related species poses significant challenges. Overall, there was some presence of potentially toxic microalgae in the Abrolhos Islands, with one incidence above alert levels. However, there was no evidence that biotoxins were present in the algae detected.
The coastal fisheries sector in Sri Lanka is crucial for food security and nutrition, employment creation, poverty reduction, and foreign exchange earnings. Co-management, a participatory approach involving fishers, the government, and other stakeholders, is widely acknowledged as an effective strategy for sustainable fisheries management. This study investigates how existing co-management platforms in Sri Lanka contribute to addressing key challenges within the coastal fisheries sector. A field survey was conducted with 115 fishermen from six Fisheries Management Committees in two selected Fisheries Management Areas. The study examined issues within the fisheries sector based on four themes of the Small-Scale Fisheries Guidelines adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization: responsible governance of tenure, sustainable resource management, social development, employment, and decent work, and gender equality. These issues were identified through a previous study conducted by the Sri Lanka Forum of Small-Scale Fisheries in 2019. Both descriptive statistics and parametric hypothesis tests were employed to assess the perceived contribution of co-management platforms. The findings indicate that Sri Lankan coastal fishers generally view co-management mechanisms approvingly. Existing platforms demonstrate a high degree of effectiveness in resolving issues related to the responsible governance of tenure. However, their contribution is moderate in addressing challenges pertaining to sustainable resource management, social development, employment, and decent work. Furthermore, the contribution of co-management platforms is deemed unsatisfactory in ensuring gender equality. The study recommends that government agencies should actively engage in building awareness and educating fishing communities on gender equality and emphasise the importance of sustainable resource management, leading to improved well-being of fishing communities.
The suckermouth catfish (SMC, family Loricariidae), native to South America, has become a globally invasive species, now documented in 22 countries across tropical, subtropical, and warm-water regions. Like many invasive species, SMCs adversely impact local ecosystems and biodiversity. Recent reports of their proliferation in Bangladesh’s inland waters have raised significant ecological concerns, prompting the government to impose a nationwide ban on SMCs in 2022. However, comprehensive control measures will not be effective and efficient without upcycling practices. Thus, utilising data from scientific databases, this study summarises potential upcycling techniques for SMC. Fish meal and bone flour, products for animal consumption, were identified in the literature as nutritious alternative feed additives derived from SMC. Laboratory production of value-added items, such as collagen, alkaline protease, gelatine, and protein hydrolysate, was conducted at a minimal scale using SMC. Suckermouth catfish utilisation for human nutrition, biofuel production, fertiliser development, and cultural applications (e.g., souvenirs or gifts) suggests its strong potential for implementing a circular economy. Only a limited number of studies have explored its potential in sewage biotreatment or medicinal applications, such as bone healing. However, to date, very limited research on the SMC upcycling methods has been conducted in Bangladesh. Heavy metal concentration is a matter of concern for SMC upcycling. This study identifies critical research gaps and challenges that should be addressed to implement the concepts of upcycling.
