This study assessed the neuroprotective effectiveness of red grape seed extract (RGSE) and examined the biochemical and histological aspects of neurotoxicity in offspring born to pregnant rats exposed to neurotoxins. The 48 male pups were divided into four groups: control, RGSE-treated (100 mg/kg), D-galactose (D-Gal; 120 mg/kg) and D-Gal + RGSE. Behavioral reactions, histological changes, and oxidative stress markers were evaluated in cerebellar tissues. Reduced nuclear size, altered cerebellar architecture, and markedly increased oxidative stress levels in offspring were all signs of the severe neurotoxicity caused by D-Gal exposure. On the other hand, RGSE administration demonstrated its potent antioxidant qualities by improving structural organization, restoring cellular integrity and lowering oxidative stress markers. These results imply that cerebellar development is significantly impacted by prenatal neurotoxicity, while RGSE provides significant protection by reducing oxidative and cellular damage (p < 0.05). All things considered, RGSE shows promise as a treatment option to stop cerebellar impairment brought on by developmental neurotoxicity.
World Health Organization estimates, more than 80% people in developing countries depend on traditional medicine for their primary health needs. The present study was aimed to examine protective effect of E. officinalis and S. nigrum against Mercury induced histopathological changes in gill and liver in fishes. For this present study Twenty-four (100 to 150 g) fishes were divided into four groups. Each group consisted of six fishes. Group 1 (Normal Group), which served as control, was not administered with mercury (tested drug). The fishes of groups 2, 3 and 4 were administered mercury @ 400 µg/L, respectively for 90 days (12 week). Fishes of groups 3 treated with E. officinalis fruit powder @ 1 g/100 g of feed 12 weeks for 90 days (12 week). Fishes of groups 4 treated with S. nigrum treated with fruit powder @ 1 g/100 g of feed 12 weeks in fishes. At the 13th week H & E stained Sections of the gills of group 2 showed degeneration, detachment of the secondary epithelium, severe adhesion and inflammation. On the13th week in group 3 gills tissues showed mild necrotic changes and normalization of some places. Fishes of groups 4 showed mild pathological changes and normalization of some places. On the 13th week after administration of HgCl2 @400 µg/L for 12-week liver tissues of fishes of group 2 showed severe degeneration and necrosis in hepatocytes. On 13th week after administration of HgCl2, E. officinalis fruit powder and S. nigrum fruit powder for 12 week in fishes of group 3 and 4 respectively, liver tissues showed mild pathological changes and normalization of some places in fishes of group 3 and 4, respectively. The results indicate that the cytogenic effect of E. officinalis and S. nigrum in fishes of Group 3 and 4 against of Hg induced histopathological changes in gill and liver.
Calibration of laboratory instruments is a cornerstone of analytical quality assurance in clinical biochemistry. In tertiary-care hospital laboratories, where decisions are frequently made using critical biochemical analytes (electrolytes, glucose, creatinine, liver function tests, etc.), calibration frequency directly influences analytical bias, precision, and ultimately patient safety. This review synthesizes current evidence on how calibration intervals affect measurement accuracy across common biochemical analytes, examines analyte-specific drivers of calibration drift, and outlines practical, risk-based strategies for setting calibration frequency in high-throughput hospital settings. We review technical factors (instrument design, reagent stability, ISE membrane drift), operational factors (workload, reagent-lot changes), and regulatory guidance (CLSI, ISO 15189, CLIA) that inform calibration policies. Studies demonstrate that ion-selective electrode (ISE)-based electrolytes often require multiple calibrations per day due to membrane and reference electrode drift, while many enzymatic photometric assays (glucose, ALT/AST) may remain stable for 24–72 hours depending on reagent and instrument stability. Lot-to-lot variability of reagents and calibrators and environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, power instability) are significant contributors to calibration failure. Risk-based approaches combining scheduled calibrations, QC-triggered recalibration, multi-point calibrations, reagentlot verification, and use of third-party reference materials optimize accuracy while limiting resource waste. Emerging approaches automated self-calibration, QC analytics and predictive AI models — show promise in tailoring calibration frequency dynamically. For tertiary-care laboratories, calibration strategies should be analyte-specific, evidence-based, and linked with continuous QC monitoring to ensure results remain within allowable total error and biological variation limits. We conclude with practical recommendations for laboratories pursuing efficient, patient-safety-focused calibration practices.
Artemisia annua L., a medicinal plant of global importance in the Asteraceae family, is a major source of artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone with significant antimalarial properties. However, the in vitro regeneration potential of A. annua is limited by constraints such as seed dormancy and germination capacity, and seasonal growth restrictions, thereby requiring a reliable in vitro regeneration system. In this study, a reliable indirect in vitro regeneration system for A. annua was developed using a combination of optimized 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 6-benzylaminopurine, and the underlying gene transcriptional framework was analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR. Indirect regeneration was accomplished via a threephase developmental sequence: dedifferentiation and callus induction, acquisition of organogenic competence and full shoot regeneration. Transcriptional profiling of these three stages–control leaf explants, callus induction and indirectly regenerated plantlets–revealed a highly coordinated gene regulatory cascade that was specific to each stage. During callus induction, strong upregulation of LBD16 (~15-fold) and LBD29 (~19-fold) confirmed auxin-responsive cellular dedifferentiation, accompanied by XTH9-mediated cell wall remodeling. The organogenic competence phase was marked by massive activation of the core regulatory module, with BBM (~50-fold), LC1/LEC1 (~400-fold), and sustained MET1 (~100-fold) expression signaling epigenetic stabilization of the regenerated state. Simultaneously, the redistribution of PIN1, the induction of WOX5, and the upregulation of PLT1 confirmed the specification of the shoot-root axis. AGL15 and RKD4 played roles in developmental transition and maintenance of competence. Together, these results outline a framework that regulates indirect regeneration in A. annua, offering a solid molecular foundation for large-scale propagation and metabolic engineering of this pharmaceutically significant species.
Propionic acid (PA) is a high-value chemical widely used in food preservation, pharmaceuticals, and chemical synthesis. With rising demand and growing environmental concerns over traditional petrochemical methods, sustainable bioproduction has gained significant interest. In the present study, the fermentative production of PA using calcium lactate broth as the primary substrate was investigated. Bacterial strains capable of converting lactic acid to PA were isolated and screened, with the most efficient isolate 3 was identified as Paenibacillus sp. PILGR1 through 16S rRNA sequencing. Fermentation using 120 g/L calcium lactate with 100 g/L initial lactic acid led to a substantial lactic acid reduction to 0.3 g/L and PA production of 30.3 g/L after 72 h. Growth kinetics and product formation were analyzed using Logistic and Luedeking- Piret models, and relevant parameters (X0, µm, m, n, p, q) were estimated. The findings highlight Paenibacillus sp. PILGR1 as a promising candidate for sustainable, microbial-based propionic acid production.
A synthetic insecticide called malathion is used to manage a range of pests and insects. Acetylcholinesterase is inhibited by the organophosphate pesticide malathion. In our study, we found that there were more than 120 targets in human for showing malathion toxicity in human and most them are enzymes and nuclear receptors. From CytoScape analysis there were 10 hub genes were extrapolated and they were HSP90AA1, CASP3, ESR1, EGFR, TLR4, PTGS2, EP300, MMP2, MAPK14 and JAK2. As per molecular docking study with the 5 most important target reveals that 1JD0 and malathion docking showed that Gly 12 and Gly9 were mainly involved for interaction and the energy was found -6.6 Kcal/mol and was the best targeting protein. According to gene enrichment study, exposure to malathion in humans primarily enriches pathways for all types of cancer, leishmaniasis, hepatitis B infection, and proteoglycans in cancer, among many other conditions. According to our findings, prolonged exposure to malathion by humans may result in life-threatening illnesses and even death. Future research using experimental animals is required.
Hydrocarbon contamination from petroleum-related industries and accidental oil spills poses a persistent environmental challenge due to the recalcitrant and toxic nature of hydrocarbons. The present study aimed to isolate and characterize hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms and their enzymes, and to evaluate their potential application in bioremediation. The study was designed to enrich and isolate indigenous microbes from hydrocarbon-contaminated samples, screen them for enzymatic degradation capability, and molecularly identify efficient strains. Samples were subjected to selective enrichment using hydrocarbons as the sole carbon source, followed by isolation, screening, and enzymatic characterization. Molecular identification through 16S rRNA gene sequencing confirmed the presence of Bacillus sp. (in: firmicutes). Enzyme analysis revealed significant lipase activity, indicating its key role in the breakdown of hydrophobic hydrocarbon substrates. The results demonstrated that the isolated Bacillus strain possesses strong metabolic adaptability and enzymatic efficiency under hydrocarbon-stressed conditions. The findings highlight the effectiveness of lipase-mediated biodegradation and support the application of indigenous Bacillus strains as eco-friendly, cost-effective and sustainable biological agents for the bioremediation of hydrocarbon-polluted environments.
Diabetic nephropathy is a leading cause of end-stage renal disease, driven by hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress, intracellular calcium dysregulation and apoptosis of renal cells. The phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K/Akt) pathway exerts prosurvival effects, yet its role in GABA-mediated renoprotection remains unexplored. We hypothesized that GABA attenuates renal apoptosis in DN via GABAA receptor-dependent activation of calcium influx and the PI3K/Akt pathway, suppressing caspase-3 activation. Male Wistar rats were induced with DN using streptozotocin (55mg/kg, i.p.) and nicotinamide (110mg/kg, i.p.). After confirmation of DN at day 40, treatments were administered for 20 days. Assessments included body weight, polyuria, fasting plasma glucose, urinary biomarkers (albumin, urea, creatinine and calcium), renal oxidative stress markers (SOD, CAT and LPO), intracellular calcium, PI3K/Akt phosphorylation (western blot) and apoptosis (cleaved caspase-3, flow cytometry). DN included body weight loss, polyuria, hyperglycemia, albuminuria, oxidative stress, calcium depletion, PI3K/Akt suppression and elevated apoptosis. GABA significantly ameliorated these changes, restoring antioxidant activities, normalizing calcium levels, reactivating PI3K/Akt and reducing apoptotic cells. These effects were completely by bicuculline, confirming GABAA receptor mediation.
Clinostomidae is a parasite family with a large global distribution. Clinostomum sp., a common digenetic trematode, has a metacercariae stage that is perfect for infecting Channidae species by encrusting their kidneys, liver and muscles. The purpose of this work was to identify Clinostomum sp. in Channa punctatus using a morphological approaches. The morphological traits of species’ were investigated under a light and scanning electron microscope. This parasitic creature was fascinatingly unveiled by the SEM research, with its flattened, leaf-shaped body coated with surface characteristics. Channa punctatus is the most common fish found in rivers, lakes and ponds. It is valued for its taste, high nutritional value and potent medicinal properties. However, the fishing sector has suffered significant losses as a result of parasite infestation, which has raised awareness of the problem. The goal of the present investigation is to get knowledge about the trematodes parasites that were isolated from the tissues and body cavity of fish using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). SEM observations revealed that Clinostomum specimens measured approximately 2.26 mm in length with body width from 391.38 µm to 753.39 µm. Length and Width of deeply seated oral sucker measures about 64.93 µm and 89.66 µm, respectively. Similarly, the ventral sucker measured 64.93 µm in length and 89.66 µm in width. The excretory pore measured 0.96 µm in length and 0.46 µm in width. However, molecular tools are recommended for accurate species-level confirmation.
The importance of mental health to general well-being has drawn a lot of attention in recent years. There is an increasing demand for creative, scalable and easily available mental health treatments due to the rise in stress-related disorders, anxiety, and depression, especially in fast-paced urban settings. The main objective of the paper is to advance this expanding field by creating an intelligent emotion detection system that accurately classifies facial emotions using deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs). By combining deep learning, computer vision, and predictive analytics, it paves the way for more empathetic AI systems that not only understand how we feel but also help us navigate the complexities of mental health with greater support and insight.
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck seeds represent an underutilized agro-industrial by-product with considerable phytochemical and therapeutic potential. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the morphology, chemical composition and biofunctional properties of sweet orange seeds, highlighting their relevance for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications. Morphologically, the seeds are typically ovoid, dicotyledonous, and rich in storage lipids, with polyembryony observed in several cultivars. Chemically, they are characterized by a high lipid content (54-55%), dominated by unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic and oleic acids, alongside tocopherols, phytosterols and carotenoids. Importantly, orange seeds are a significant source of bioactive secondary metabolites, particularly limonoids (e.g., limonin, nomilin, obacunone) and flavonoids (e.g., hesperidin and eriocitrin), which exhibit diverse biological activities. Experimental evidence indicates strong antioxidant capacity mediated through radical scavenging and activation of endogenous defense pathways, including Nrf2 signalling. Additional reported activities include anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiglycation, insecticidal, antimalarial and antiviral effects, often linked to modulation of NF-?B, PI3K/Akt and detoxification enzymes such as glutathione-S-transferase. The multifunctional bioactivity of C. sinensis seeds arises from synergistic interactions among lipids, phenolics, and triterpenoids. Given increasing interest in sustainable waste valorisation, orange seeds offer promising prospects as a source of functional ingredients. Further mechanistic studies and clinical validation are warranted to facilitate translation into high-value health and industrial applications.
A new series of 4 substituted azetidinonyl and 2 substituted thiazolidinonyl 6 bromoquinazolinone derivatives was designed and synthesized to explore their anti inflammatory potential. Structural confirmation was achieved through IR, 1H NMR, and elemental analysis. The compounds were evaluated for anti inflammatory activity using standard pharmacological models, with several derivatives exhibiting significant inhibition compared to reference drugs. Structure–activity relationship analysis indicated that substitution on the azetidinonyl and thiazolidinonyl rings influenced biological activity. These findings suggest that quinazolinone hybrids incorporating azetidinone and thiazolidinone moieties represent promising scaffolds for the development of novel anti inflammatory agents.
The present study was undertaken to evaluate the hepatoprotective potential of a hydroalcoholic root extract of Curculigo orchioides against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)- and paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity in Wistar albino rats. The roots were extracted using a Soxhlet apparatus with a hydroalcoholic solvent system, and the resulting extract was assessed for its protective efficacy. Experimental animals were divided into control and treatment groups and administered the extract orally at doses of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg body weight. Hepatic injury was induced using CCl4 and paracetamol, followed by biochemical assessment of liver function biomarkers. Treatment with the extract significantly reduced elevated serum levels of serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), bilirubin, and creatinine, while markedly restoring albumin and total protein levels compared to toxic control groups (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). The hepatoprotective effect observed at the higher dose (400 mg/kg) was comparable to that of the standard hepatoprotective drug silymarin. These findings suggest that the hydroalcoholic root extract of Curculigo orchioides possesses significant hepatoprotective activity, thereby supporting its traditional use as a natural therapeutic agent for the management of liver disorders.
Depression is a multifactorial neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by mood dysregulation, neurochemical imbalance and impaired neuroplasticity. The present study evaluated the antidepressant-like effects of curcumin phytosomes in a chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-induced rat model of depression. The animals were divided into five groups: Control, CUMS + Vehicle, CUMS + Curcumin (100 mg/kg), CUMS + Curcumin Phytosome (100 mg/kg) and CUMS + Fluoxetine (10 mg/kg). Behavioral parameters, including sucrose preference and immobility time in the forced swim and tail suspension tests, were assessed, followed by biochemical and histopathological analyses. Curcumin phytosome treatment significantly reversed CUMS-induced behavioral deficits, increased antioxidant enzyme levels (SOD, CAT, GPx), reduced lipid peroxidation and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-?) and normalized plasma corticosterone concentration. Additionally, curcumin phytosome enhanced hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), CREB, and synaptophysin expression, indicating improved neuroplasticity. Histological studies revealed preserved hippocampal neuronal architecture in the phytosome-treated group, comparable to fluoxetine. These findings suggest that curcumin phytosome exerts antidepressant-like activity through modulation of the HPA axis, enhancement of monoaminergic transmission, reduction of oxidative stress and inflammation, and upregulation of neurotrophic factors. The study highlights curcumin phytosome as a potent, safe, and natural therapeutic candidate for managing depression. Curcumin phytosome represents a promising natural alternative or adjunct to conventional antidepressants, offering comparable efficacy with superior safety and tolerability. Its phytosomal delivery system effectively overcomes curcumin’s bioavailability limitations, ensuring better brain targeting and sustained therapeutic action. Further clinical validation is warranted to establish optimal dosage, long-term safety, and translational applicability in human depression therapy.
Carotenoid-producing bacteria have recently gained interest as a promising source of carotenoids for food and feed applications. Carotenoid produced and retained in spores of bacteria offers gastric stability, prolonged viability with higher bio-accessibility and bioavailability compared to carotenoids from other sources, thereby improving gut health and immunity. The present study aimed to identify the pigment-producing SKB/148 isolate by molecular identification and characterize its probiotic traits in accordance with ICMR guidelines. Based on 16S rRNA sequencing, MALDI-TOF analysis and phylogenetic analysis, SKB/148 was identified as Bacillus indicus. The current findings indicated that Bacillus indicus SKB/148 produces hydrolytic enzymes, resistant to bile salt (0.3% w/v) and gastric pH (2.5). Additionally, Bacillus indicus SKB/148 exhibited no haemolytic, DNase, gelatinase and mucin degradation activity. Furthermore, Bacillus indicus SKB/148 exhibited significant in-vitro antioxidant activity (64.22%), reducing capacity and ascorbate auto-oxidation inhibition (94.66%). Preliminary characterization of the pigments extracted from the spores using LC-MS and IR confirms the presence of apocarotenoid. These findings indicate that Bacillus indicus SKB/148 is safe and may serve as a potential probiotic for human and animal health care.
Medicinal plants have long served as a valuable source of therapeutic agents, particularly in the management of chronic diseases such as cancer, inflammation, and oxidative stress-related disorders. In recent years, the global scientific community has increasingly focused on plant-derived bioactive compounds due to their safety, accessibility, and pharmacological efficacy. The increasing demand for natural bioactive compounds has driven extensive research into medicinal plants with potential therapeutic applications. The present study investigates the extraction, characterization and biological significance of phytochemicals from Annona muricata fruit using aqueous, ethanolic and hydro-ethanolic solvents. Qualitative and quantitative phytochemical screening revealed the presence of diverse secondary metabolites including flavonoids, phenolics, alkaloids, terpenoids, and saponins, with hydro-ethanolic extracts exhibiting the highest abundance. Spectroscopic analyses (UV–Vis and FTIR) confirmed the presence of functional groups associated with bioactive compounds, while GC–MS profiling identified key constituents such as phytol, hexadecanoic acid, squalene, and octadecatrienoic acid. HPLC analysis further validated the presence of important phenolic compounds including kaempferol, apigenin, and naringenin. These compounds are known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. The findings highlight the efficiency of hydro-ethanolic extraction and support the potential application of Annona muricata fruit as a source of natural therapeutic agents. This study provides a scientific basis for future pharmacological and clinical investigations.
Linseed is a significant rabi oilseed crop in India, valued for its oil rich in omega-3 fatty acids and has a big role in the medicinal sector at the same time and its strong natural fibers used in eco-friendly products. Despite its potential, linseed productivity in India, especially under rainfed conditions, remains low due to factors such as poor soil quality, inadequate nutrient management, and limited access to improved varieties. Nitrogen (N), a key nutrient for plant growth and yield, plays a crucial role in improving linseed performance. However, imbalanced fertilizer use can harm soil health and long-term productivity. Optimizing nitrogen application, particularly through foliar feeding with nano-urea, offers a promising solution to enhance nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and reduce environmental impacts. This study investigates the effects of soil and foliar nitrogen fertilization on linseed yield viability under rainfed conditions in Nagaland. The results aim to identify effective nutrient management strategies to improve linseed productivity, and sustainability in marginal farming environments. The study evaluated the effects of nitrogen (N) application methods on plant growth, yield, and yield components. Split application of 100% N through fertilizers significantly enhanced plant height (up to 71.56 cm), number of capsules plant-1 (49.39), seeds capsule-1 (9.4), seed yield (873 kg ha-1), and stover yield (2760 kg ha-1), followed by 75% N application. Among foliar sprays, twice application of nanourea (3 ml l-1) led to the highest plant height, yield attributes such as capsules and seed plant -1, seed and stover yield (2760.41 kg ha-1), while one spray of nanourea at flower initiation gave the highest seed yield (811.29 kg ha-1). Overall, 100% N via soil application and twice foliar spray of twice spray of nanourea @ 3ml/liter improved growth and yield over all.
The present study was undertaken to compare the histoarchitecture of the epididymis in crossbred sheep and non-descript goats of Jammu region. In both the species, the caput epididymis was enclosed by a thick fibrous capsule (tunica albuginea) predominantly composed of collagen fibers, with sparse reticular and elastic fibers. Smooth muscle fibers were interspersed within the capsule and trabeculae, while connective tissue septa extended into the parenchyma, dividing it into lobules. The intertubular tissue and stroma were mainly collagenous, with the basement membrane consisting of reticular fibers. Circularly arranged smooth muscle layers (3–4) surrounded each tubule, being most prominent in the cauda region, indicating a role in sperm transport. Reticular fiber networks and nerve fibers were evident in the intertubular tissue, with denser innervation in the cauda. The epididymal tubules were lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium comprising principal, basal, and occasional apical cells. Principal cells exhibited stereocilia and eosinophilic cytoplasm, while basal cells were fewer and peripherally located. Intraepithelial lymphocytes were occasionally observed. Smooth muscle layers were most developed in the cauda. Spermatozoa were observed as dense luminal packs in all regions, particularly enlarged in the cauda. Overall, the findings indicated structural similarities between sheep and goat epididymis with regional adaptations for sperm maturation, storage, and transport.
Shrimp shell waste is one of the most abundant by-products generated by the seafood processing. These shells are rich in valuable biochemical components such as chitin, proteins, minerals (primarily calcium carbonate), lipids and pigments like astaxanthin. The recovery and utilization of these bioactive compounds have attracted increasing attention due to their potential applications in pharmaceuticals, food technology, agriculture, and nanotechnology. Spectroscopy is a valuable method for both quantitative and qualitative study of biological and pharmacological materials, as well as for characterizing secondary metabolites. The present study investigates the qualitative and quantitative biochemical composition of shrimp shell waste derived from Penaeus vannamei, with a focus on its potential for value-added applications. Qualitative screening of the methanolic extract revealed the presence of diverse bioactive compounds, including tannins, saponins, steroids, terpenoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, proteins, polysaccharides, carotenoids, chitin, and chitosan, indicating the biochemical richness of the shell waste. Quantitative analysis showed significant levels of total phenolics (109.02 ± 7.63 mg GAE/g), terpenoids (155.43 ± 10.88 mg/g), alkaloids (39.31 ± 2.75 mg/g), and total carotenoids (187.38 ± 12.51mg/g), highlighting strong antioxidant and therapeutic potential. UV–Visible spectroscopic analysis revealed characteristic absorption peaks at 289.25 nm, 630.98 nm, 762.46 nm and 979.74 nm, confirming the presence of protein-bound compounds, phenolics, and carotenoid pigments, along with their role in nanoparticle formation. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy further identified key functional groups such as hydroxyl, amine, carbonyl, and polysaccharide linkages, confirming the presence of chitin–protein complexes and associated biomolecules. The findings demonstrate that shrimp shell waste is a valuable source of bioactive compounds and functional materials, with significant potential in nanotechnology, pharmaceuticals, and environmental applications.
The present study focuses on the comprehensive characterization of bioactive phytochemical compounds present in the hydro-ethanolic extract of Ruellia prostrata leaf petiole using advanced spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques. Preliminary phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of diverse secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, polyphenols, glycosides and steroids. UV–Visible spectroscopy revealed characteristic absorption peaks corresponding to conjugated sypetioles and phenolic compounds, while FTIR analysis identified key functional groups such as hydroxyl, carbonyl, amine and aromatic groups, indicating structurally diverse bioactive constituents. Further, LC–MS analysis enabled the identification of fourteen compounds, including hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives, flavonoids (apigenin- and kaempferollike compounds), quinoline-type alkaloids and several high molecular weight triterpenoid and steroidal saponins, with good database matching scores. The predominance of saponins and polyphenolic compounds suggests significant pharmacological potential, particularly in antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory applications. The integration of multiple analytical techniques provided a robust and reliable approach for phytochemical profiling, enhancing the accuracy of compound identification. The findings highlight Ruellia prostrata as a promising natural source of bioactive compounds with potential applications in pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, and functional food development. This study contributes to the growing body of research on plant-based therapeutics and supports the use of advanced analytical tools for comprehensive phytochemical investigations.
