Repetitive sequences are immensely distributed in the genomes of all viruses, bacteria, plants and animals. Repetitive sequences throughout the genome in both coding and non-coding regions are a major source of endogenous DNA damage, due to the propensity of many of them to form alternative non-B DNA structures that can interfere with replication, transcription and DNA repair The alternative non-canonical structures include triple-helices, hairpins, cruciforms and slipped structures and they are more likely to form at particular repetitive sequences such as mirror repeats, inverted repeats, direct repeats, and short tandem repeats. Although mirror DNA repeats were discovered in genomic DNA,the ability of a subset of lengthy homopurine-homopyrimidine mirror repetitions (H-motifs) to form a triple-helical DNA secondary structure was the only functional property that was thoroughly identified. Over the past decade, biological databases have expanded significantly due to developments in genomics, computational biology, and bioinformatics. A computational method was used in this study to identify mirror repetitions in the Rattus norvegicus’s diabetic genes. The Fast Parallel Complement Blast (FPCB) tool, a rapid and efficient bioinformatics method for identifying gene and genome repeats, was used to do this. Mirror repeats were found 199 in Glucagon, 135 in Sox17, 116 in Gapdh and 167 in PKLR genes during this study. Through this study, we can better understand the function of mirror repeats in the Rattus norvegicus’s genes, which may be further linked to mirror repeats in the human genome. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 14(1): 28-43.
A study conducted in the sub-prefecture of Bâ-Illi, located in southern Chad, aimed to assess the state of agricultural soil degradation and explore prospects for its restoration. A survey was carried out among producers and other stakeholders involved in agricultural activities. The study reveals that the primary method of land acquisition is inheritance, followed by leasing. Producers are aware that declining field yields result from soil degradation caused by inadequate farming techniques. They employ a variety of techniques, ranging from no-till farming and mulching to half-moon planting.
This study was conducted from February to July of 2023 in the Fish Superzone of Rupandehi, Nepal, using a semi-structured questionnaire administered to 135 randomly selected respondents. The objectives were to assess the feeding system, the willingness of fish farmers to adopt commercial fish feed, and the factors associated with feed type adoption. Results showed that 69.6% of respondents were using traditional feed, 25.9% both traditional and commercial feed, and 4.4% were using commercial feed exclusively. Among traditional feed users, 83.7% relied solely on mustard oilcake (MOC) and rice bran (RB), with significant variation in blending ratios. Additionally, 92.4% of respondents using traditional feed were unwilling to switch to commercial fish feed, primarily due to high cost (94.7% of responses) and adherence to traditional practices (88.3%). The pond water surface area and gender were found to be significantly associated with the type of feed adopted. This study suggests, providing women-specific training, optimizing nutrients in fish feed through training on blending of locally available inputs for traditional feed with effective pond management, and subsidy programs on feed additives (vitamins, minerals, and probiotics) can improve feeding system. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 14(1): 1-13.
The determination of oxalate in the biological fluid is of great importance in the diagnosis and medical management of urinary stone disease and various intestinal diseases. We describe herein preparation of oxalate oxidase (OxOx) nanoparticles (NPs) and their electrodeposition / imobilization onto Au electrode for improved amperometric determination oxalate in serum and urine. An oxalate biosensor was fabricated by connecting OxOxNPs,AgCl as standard electrode and Pt wire as auxillary electrode through potentiostat/Galvanostat. OxOxNPs were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The enzyme electrode was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The biosensor showed optimum response within 3s at pH5.5 and 350C, when operated at 0.345V. The biosensor exhibited excellent sensitivity with a detection limit (LOD) as low as 1 µM, fast response time and wider linear range (from1 to 400 µM). Michaelis Menten constant (Km) for OxOxNPs was 15.19 µM and Imax 0.001 mA. Analytic recoveries of exogenously added oxalate in urine (20 µM, 40 µM) were 97.5% and 99.1% respectively. Within and between batch coefficients of variation for urinary oxalate determination were <5.53% and <6.16% respectively. The biosensor showed good correlation of 0.98 with standard enzymic colourimetric method. Biosensor measured oxalate in urine and plasma of healthy persons and urinary stone formers. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 14(1): 44-52.
This study investigated the improvement of post-thaw motility and kinetics of Red Junglefowl sperm cryopreserved using extender supplemented with caffeine as an effective cryoprotectant. Semen samples collected from the cocks were cryopreserved using extenders containing 8% dimethyl sulfoxide and varying concentrations of caffeine (0, 1, 2, and 3 mg/ml) assigned into 4 treatment groups: T0, T1, T2, and T3, respectively. Post-thaw sperm motility and kinetic parameters were evaluated. The results demonstrated that the supplementation of 2 mg/ml caffeine (T2 group) significantly (P<0.05) enhanced post-thaw motility, progressive motility, and velocity compared to other treatment groups (T0, T1 and T3). The highest values for curvilinear velocity, average path velocity, and straight-line velocity were observed in sperm treated with 2 mg/ml caffeine, suggesting its role in mitigating cryodamage and improving sperm quality. Furthermore, straightness, linearity, and wobble indices were significantly (P<0.05) improved in the T2 group compared to other treatment groups. The amplitude of lateral head displacement and beat cross frequency were also influenced by caffeine supplementation recorded in T2 group. These findings indicated that caffeine served as an effective cryoprotective additive in avian semen cryopreservation. The supplementation of caffeine, particularly at 2 mg/ml, enhanced post-thaw sperm motility and kinetic properties, making it a promising candidate for improving the effectiveness of semen preservation protocols. Further studies are required to assess its impact on fertilization success rates in artificial insemination and long-term genetic conservation programs. This protocol could revolutionize avian genetic resource banking, particularly for threatened species like Red Junglefowl. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 14(1): 14-21.
Natural fibers can be spun into threads and can be used for various applications, as these are more sustainable than synthetic fibers. Banana pseudo-stem is considered agricultural waste after harvest and is left to rot in the fields that can be used as a valuable natural fiber source for composite as well as textile industries. Looking at the current extraction processes, the quality of fibers is observed to be inferior in the case of mechanical extraction when compared with manual traditional methods. This study focuses on this problem and investigates the banana fiber extraction machine and its process parameters optimization. The effect of blade profiles in the fiber extraction was evaluated using an after designing decorticator-type fiber extraction machine. The effective resistive force was observed to be 22.194 N, and the power was 174.308 W. It is observed that the optimum speed is 640 rpm and 2mm clearance for sharp-edged blades and 1mm for chamfered edged, with chamfered edges being able to produce high-quality fiber that is close to manual fiber quality. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 14(1): 53-58.
Probiotic microorganisms are frequently utilized in pharmaceutical and food formulations due to their beneficial effects on human health and gut microbiota. However, the unforeseen emergence of resistance to antibiotics among such probiotic microbes invites attention for the careful evaluation of the safety and therapeutic applicability of these probiotic microbes. The present study investigated the antibiogram profile of such isolates procured from locally available pharmaceutical probiotic formulations. Antibiotic susceptibility test revealed considerable variation among the isolates six. All six isolates exhibited complete sensitivity towards gentamicin and showed predominant sensitivity to amikacin, vancomycin, ampicillin-sulbactam, chloramphenicol, amoxiclav, and ampicillin. Intermediate resistance was recorded against ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, nalidixic acid, azithromycin, and kanamycin. Certain isolates revealed resistance to clindamycin, ceftazidime, erythromycin, and penicillin. The study highlights that probiotic strains possessing intrinsic/non-transferable resistance may provide advantages during concurrent antibiotic therapy by maintaining gut microbial balance. The occurrence of multidrug resistance, particularly on mobile genetic elements, among some isolates raises biosafety concerns regarding the possible dissemination of resistance. Besides such resistant microbes may, sometimes, compromise the efficacy of therapeutic antibiotics. Overall, this investigation emphasizes that antibiotic resistance profiling should be considered a critical criterion in the development of probiotic formulations. A comprehensive evaluation of resistance mechanisms, transmissibility, and biosafety parameters will ensure the safe, effective, and sustainable utilization of probiotics in food, pharmaceutical and clinical setups Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 14(2): 65-77.
Nepal’s wine market is at a nascent stage, characterized by limited domestic production and a heavy reliance on import. Wine consumption in Nepal has increased steadily, with an average annual import of 570,814.875 liters over past eight years. Despite this dependence on imports, its unique geographical and cultural attributes present immense opportunities for the development of a robust wine industry. This paper explores the global wine production landscape, historical context of alcohol consumption in Nepal, and the challenges and opportunities of wine industry in Nepal. By emphasizing the potential of fruit wines, leveraging wine tourism, and addressing existing bottlenecks, Nepal can position itself as a competitive player in the regional and global wine market. This paper utilizes secondary data derived from journal publication, census, survey data, and news reports. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 14(2): 59-68.
Agricultural subsidies are important policy instruments for improving agricultural productivity, supporting farmers’ livelihoods, and ensuring food security. This study assessed the pattern, accessibility, and effectiveness of agricultural subsidy and service delivery mechanisms under Nepal’s federal governance system in Lamjung District. A cross-sectional convergent parallel mixed-method research design was employed. Primary data were collected from 194 respondents, including 140 farmers and 54 service providers, using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. Secondary information was obtained from relevant literature and reports. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics through SPSS and Microsoft Excel, while qualitative data were interpreted through observation and literature review. The findings revealed that only 44.8% of respondents had received agricultural subsidies, with most support concentrated on seeds and fertilizers, while mechanization and technology-related subsidies remained limited. Farmers faced several barriers in accessing services, including repeated office visits, inadequate information, lengthy documentation procedures, and the absence of extension workers. The study further identified a significant perception gap between farmers and service providers regarding transparency, awareness, and effectiveness of subsidy programs. Although local governments were perceived as the most suitable institutions for agricultural service delivery, weak institutional capacity and inadequate human resources constrained effective implementation. The study emphasizes the need for a more demand-driven, transparent, inclusive, and participatory agricultural service delivery system to ensure sustainable agricultural development in Nepal. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 14(2): 99-107.
In spring 2019, outbreak of COVID-19 virus epidemic turned into a pandemic which led to serious health threat to global public health. In pandemic, educational institutions all around the world adjourn the offline classes and shift to online classes. This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the effect of COVID -19 on academic performance of high school student, studying in Viswa Niketan Higher Secondary School, i.e. Government community school. A sample size of 422 participants was collected. The collection was done using questionnaire sheet distributed to students. Data analysed using SPSS version 21. Total no of participant who enrolled in study was 422. including high school students, teachers, researcher etc. The data represented the effect of Covid-19 on academic performance of most participant enrolled in study was 99.7%. The mean evaluation of online learning in general was 5.05 ± 3.25 and mean evaluation of practical class in online learning 3.82±2.3. Online classes alternative to offline classes, but beneficial for students during pandemic period. Online classes provide opportunity for self-study, low economical cost, save time and develops skills and make familiar to digital world from any corner of the world. High school syllabus contains theory and practical portion; theory portion was easy to grab online at the same moment difficult to garb practical portion. The practical portion requires demonstration, student-teacher interaction etc.so it is recommended that online study should be made more effective by using 3d tools, animation, hiring of trained manpower, so that content should be presented with more reliable and interesting way. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 14(2): 78-87.
The present experiment was conducted at Bharatpur-15, Fulbari, Chitwan, Nepal, from 28 November 2017 to 8 May 2018 to evaluate the performance of 27 maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids, including pipeline hybrids and commercial checks, under subtropical winter conditions. The experiment was laid out in a randomized alpha-lattice design with three replications. Data were recorded on yield, yield components, and flowering traits, and analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by mean separation using LSD and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The results revealed significant differences among genotypes for all studied traits, indicating substantial genetic variability. Grain yield ranged from 7.08 to 20.99 t ha⁻¹, with K1(A) × Y33 recording the highest yield, followed by K5(A) × Y33 and K2(A) × Y33. These hybrids also exhibited superior performance in biomass yield, harvest index, and kernel weight. Flowering traits, particularly anthesis–silking interval (ASI), showed significant variation, with lower ASI associated with better reproductive efficiency and higher grain yield. Heterosis analysis revealed strong positive heterosis for grain yield, with K1(A) × Y33 showing the highest mid-parent heterosis (80.12%), indicating the importance of non-additive gene action. The study identified K1(A) × Y33, K5(A) × Y33, and K2(A) × Y33 as promising hybrids with high yield potential and desirable agronomic traits. These hybrids can be recommended for further multilocation testing and potential commercialization. Overall, the findings highlight the effectiveness of heterosis breeding in improving maize productivity and provide valuable insights for future hybrid development programs in Nepal and similar agro-ecological regions. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 14(2): 88-98.
Adequate amount of lignocellulosic biomass on earth features convincing feedstock material for various sustainable products such as bioplastics, biofuels and biomedical applications. However, delignification is necessary for converting complex material into valuable products. Among various pretreatment methods, biological delignification is particularly attractive due to its environmental friendliness. Ligninolytic fungi from Ascomycota and Basidiomycota are the primary target due to their secretion of oxidative enzymes like Laccase, LiP, and MnP, which initiate the degradation of its stable structure. Isolation, screening, and identification of potential ligninolytic fungi is an aim of this investigation. A total of 18 various fungal strains were isolated by using potato dextrose agar medium from 15 different collected environmental samples. Through quantitative and qualitative screening, three potential fungi labelled as F5, F8, and F9, were selected and identified as Fusarium chlamydosporum (PX482664), Polyporus benetostus (PQ348730), and Trichoderma erinaceum (PQ349085) using the ITS region-based molecular method. The Laccase activity of F-5, F-8, and F-9 were found to be 261.32 U/g, 434.29 U/g, and 207.67 U/g, respectively, while their LiP activity was determined to be 503.1 U/g, 430.5 U/g, and 330.6 U/g, respectively. However, no MnP activity was observed in all three fungal cultures. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 13(4): 162-170.
Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. Capripneumoniae (Mccp) is the causative agent of contagious caprine plueropneumonia (CCPP). In many countries CCPP is diagnosed by clinical signs and serological methods only. Mccp is known to be difficult to culture in the laboratories due to the fastidious nature of the organism. In the Sudan, there is need for further studies on sheep and goat pneumonia. The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of Mccp in ovine and caprine pneumonic lungs and to study the histopathology of the affected lungs. Tissue samples were obtained from condemned lungs of slaughtered sheep and goats and from clinically ill goats in Omdurman, Khartoum State, Sudan. Bacteriological culture and PCR methods were used to detect Mccp. Histopathological evaluation was also performed. Mccp DNA was identified in 4 goat and one sheep sample using PCR, while only one of them- goat lung sample- was identified using bacteriologic culture lung samples. None of the detected microscopic lung lesion could be considered specific for Mccp infection. This study documents for the first time, the presence of Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae (Mccp) DNA in pneumonic sheep lung in Sudan suggesting that sheep may act as potential carriers of CCPP and/or clinically affected animal species. This highlights the need for further investigation into the epidemiological role of sheep in the transmission of CCPP. Although PCR is more costly than traditional bacteriological culture, it proves to be a valuable tool for CCPP surveillance due to its higher sensitivity and specificity. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 13(4): 146-152.
The research was conducted at Kaski, Nepal from March to June 2021 to study different doses of vermicompost and inorganic fertilizers on growth and yield of radish (Raphanus sativus) The experiment was laid out in a two-factor Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with 12 treatments and 3 replications. The first factor was variety—Tokinashi and Mino Early—and the second factor was fertilizer level, consisting of six treatments: control (no fertilizer), 75% vermicompost + 25% inorganic fertilizer, 50% vermicompost + 50% inorganic fertilizer, 25% vermicompost + 75% inorganic fertilizer, 100% inorganic fertilizer, and 100% vermicompost. Vegetative parameters were recorded at 20, 30, 40 and 50 days after sowing whereas yield parameters: biological yield per plant, economic yield per plant, root length and root diameter were recorded at 55 days after sowing. It has been observed that the growth and yield attributing characters of radish were significantly affected by variety and fertilizer levels. Mino early recorded highest result for all vegetative parameters. However, highest yield attributing characters was recorded from Tokinashi. The combination of inorganic fertilizer with 50-75% with vermicompost gave better result in terms of both growth and yield attributing parameters than 100% inorganic fertilizer alone. Interaction effect of variety and fertilizer levels for all parameters at all dates of observations was found to be non-significant. Overall, the highest yielded was from variety, Tokinashi (4.55kg/m2) and the fertilizer combination of 50% vermicompost + 50% inorganic fertilizer (5.61kg/m2). Therefore, this combination is recommended for late-season radish production in Kaski, Nepal. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 13(4): 153-161.
Background: Cervical cancer is a major global health burden, especially in low- and middle-income countries with limited access to screening and treatment. DNA methylation, an epigenetic modification, critically regulates gene expression and cancer progression. This study investigates the relationship between DNA methylation and gene expression in cervical cancer to identify potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Objective: To identify potential novel biomarkers in cervical cancer specific to DNA methylation using analytical pathways. Methods: We performed a comprehensive bioinformatics analysis using GEO datasets (GSE122697, GSE63514, GSE46306, GSE168841) and TCGA data. Differentially methylated and expressed genes were identified, followed by functional pathway enrichment, validation, survival analysis, and evaluation of their therapeutic potential. Results: We identified 3 Hypo-HE oncogenes, including PDZK1IP1, TGM3, and S100A7 and 3 Hyper-LE TSGs such as THBS1, TMEFF1, and GREM1, emerged as potential biomarkers for cervical cancer. Conclusion: Our integrative bioinformatics analysis identified six key genes PDZK1IP1, TGM3, S100A7, GREM1, THBS1, and TMEFF1 as promising biomarkers and therapeutic targets in cervical cancer. These genes play critical roles in cancer progression through abnormal methylation and expression patterns. Targeting them may enable more precise, personalized treatment strategies to improve patient outcomes. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 13(4): 180-192.
Groundnut (Arachis hypogea. L) commonly known as peanut, is valued for its multiple uses including both human and animal consumption in the form of food, oil, and fodder, as well as acting as an effective fertilizer. Its productivity is affected by different management practices as well as nutrients. This study examines the effects of mulching (no mulch vs. rice husk mulch) and various doses of Sulphur (0, 25, 35, and 45 kg/ha) on growth, yield attributes, and yield of groundnut under field conditions. The research conducted showed that rice husk mulching positively correlated with vegetative growth, including plant height, number of branches, canopy area, number of flowers, pod weight, and biological yield compared to no mulching. Similarly, among different Sulphur levels, 35-45kg/ha showed outstanding performance on pod yield, kernel number, shelling percentage, and harvest index. So, integration of mulching with an appropriate Sulphur dose can help both increase the vegetative as well as reproductive growth of groundnut. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 13(4): 171-179.
The purpose of the present research was to assess the fluoride concentration of the surface and groundwater in the Tohana block of Fatehabad district, Haryana. Groundwater serves as the area's main supply of drinking water. 53 samples were collected each from surface (ponds, rivers) and groundwater (tubewells, handpumps and wells) and were examined for fluoride concentration using ion selective electrode. Fluoride concentration ranged from 0.02 mg/l (Lalodha, Rainwali) to 1.91 mg/l (Nanheri) in Tohana block, Fatehabad District in Haryana. 43 villages (out of 53 villages/Town) of Fatehabad district had fluoride levels that were below the WHO's highest admissible limit of 1.5 mg/l; however, Fluoride levels in 10 (out of 53 villages/towns) exceeded the permissible level; making them inadequate for drinking. The principal origins of fluoride in groundwater are assumed to be the abundance of fluoride-bearing minerals in the host rock, along with chemical characteristics like dissociation, dissolution and decomposition, in addition to their interaction with water. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 13(3): 123-129.
Hydroponic fodder has gained attention as an innovative and sustainable feed resource for poultry production. This study assessed the effects of hydroponic maize and sesbania sprouted fodder as partial replacements for commercial concentrate feed (CCF) in turkey production, with a focus on growth parameters, feed intake, feed conversion efficiency (FCE), and economic viability. Forty-eight turkeys (eight-week-old) were randomly divided into four dietary treatment groups: T1 (100% CCF), T2 (90% CCF + 10% hydroponic fodder), T3 (70% CCF + 30% hydroponic fodder), and T4 (60% CCF + 40% hydroponic fodder). Results revealed that hydroponic maize contained 14.79% dry matter (DM) and 10.92% crude protein (CP), while sesbania had 9.46% DM and 37.26% CP, demonstrating its potential as a high-protein alternative. Among the treatment groups, the highest (P<0.05) daily weight gain (20.61 g/day) was observed in birds of T2 group, which also recorded the best (P<0.05) FCE (4.03) and the highest (P<0.05) profitability index (0.36). Economic analysis showed that T2 had the highest (P<0.05) net farm income, making hydroponic fodder supplementation a cost-effective strategy. Additionally, hydroponic fodder improved gut health, enhanced nutrient bioavailability, and reduced oxidative stress, as evidenced by 100% survivability across all groups. These findings align with previous research supporting the role of hydroponic sprouts in poultry nutrition. The results suggest that incorporating hydroponic fodder at optimal levels can improve turkey growth and economic efficiency while promoting sustainable poultry farming. Future research should explore the long-term effects of hydroponic fodder on carcass quality, immune response, and environmental sustainability. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 13(3): 139-145.
Uric acid is produced in human liver from the breakdown of dietary purines and purine compounds into xanthine, which is oxidized by xanthine oxidase to generate uric acid. Since uric acid is the end product of purine breakdown in human, it is discharged through gut and kidneys. The normal uric acid levels in blood are 0.202- 0.416mM in males and 0.142- 0.357mM in females. The increased level of uric acid in serum and urine is viewed as a significant biomarker for gout, hyperuricemia, and renal-disorders, while low uric acid levels affect brain and spinal cord. The determination of unusual uric acid level in blood and urine is required for the differential conclusion and restorative administration of gout, hypertension, cardiovascular ailments, renal infection & Lesch– Nyhan disorder and recently type-2 diabetes. The conventional techniques for uric acid determination are muddled, nonspecific, less touchy and require tedious example pretreatment, costly instrumental set-up and trained people to work, explicitly for chromatographic techniques. The biosensors defeat these downsides, as these are basic, quick, explicit and very sensitive and specific. The uric acid biosensors work ideally within 3–180 s, between5.5–8.5 pH, temperature 22°C - 37°C and uric acid concentration 10-2000mM. These biosensors have been employed to measure uric acid level in serum, urine and saliva, reused up to 200-times within 7–216 days. The future perspectives of uric acid biosensors are discussed. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 13(3): 100-122.
Melia azederach (chinaberry tree) is one of the plants with high abundant in phytochemicals, that can be extracted, purified, and packaged for developing bioherbicides. Despite the reported effectiveness of chinaberry extracts in controlling invasive weeds such as Kongwa weed, its bioactive compounds remain understudied. A study was conducted using factorial arrangement in a Completely Randomized Design to evaluate the phytochemical composition of the root and barks of chinaberry tree through soxhlet and maceration extraction techniques using three different solvents; methanol, ethanol and distilled water. The extraction processes were carried out following standard extraction methods to analyses concentration of phytochemicals in the plants. Qualitative analysis confirmed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, tannins, glycosides, terpenoids, and steroids. Ethanol was the most effective solvent for extracting a broad spectrum of phytochemicals based on qualitative assessment, particularly from bark samples. On the other hands, quantitative analysis indicated that methanol provided the highest overall extraction efficiency across multiple phytochemical classes, with notable effectiveness for saponins and terpenoids. Water showed superior performance in extracting alkaloids and flavonoids, especially when Soxhlet extraction was employed. Maceration and Soxhlet extraction methods both yielded notable results, with ethanol-macerated bark exhibiting the highest levels of phenolics and tannins, and distilled water Soxhlet extraction yielding maximum flavonoid and alkaloid content. These findings confirm the potential of the chinaberry tree in on pesticide production. The study emphasizes the need for further research into compound isolation and bioactivity evaluation to harness the full therapeutic and industrial potential of this plant. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 13(3): 130-138.
