Scholarly understandings of Yinxu, the last capital of the Shang dynasty, have long concentrated on elite and ceremonial narratives, with the everyday lives of its non-elite population largely overlooked. This study recenters ordinary people with a particular attention on daily practice of eating at the neighborhood level. Through stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of different human skeletal tissues with contrasting turnover rates, the research examines inter- and intra-population dietary variability. We offer new insights into food stability throughout the Yinxu occupation, achieved through the intensification of a millet-centric agricultural system rather than through crop diversification. This strategy was a key condition that facilitated the population aggregation accompanying the rise of the city. Furthermore, this study demonstrates significant dietary variation linked to social identity, including the first evidence for distinct nutritional patterns among sub-adults and craft specialists. Moving beyond protein intake as a simple marker of status, these findings position foodways as an everyday practice through which identities were shaped and social distinctions were reproduced at the neighborhood level.
Trans-continental migration is of central concern to proposals about the transmission of ideas, objects, and people in the ancient Eurasian world in the first millennium BCE (Hanks, 2012; Cunliffe, 2019, and others). Horses and the transport that they provided were central to making this contact possible. The focus of this paper is the Pazyryk Culture, dating from the late forth-third c. BCE, although we examine broader process of exchange by examining DNA testing of the animals and the results of isotopic testing. By looking at the results of scientific testing and analysis of material culture at Pazyryk, we investigate how the role of horses affected this micro-region. This inquiry has allowed us to reimagine the role and importance of horses to the activities of their related human populations in the Altai Mountain region of Russia and Kazakhstan. We include with this a case study noting the surprising appearance of funerary horses with clear Pazyrykian affinities in newly excavated sites in present-day western Mongolia and China and the differing effects of that association.This paper adds a greatly more nuanced and complex narrative about migrations across Eurasia and the role of horses by looking at a sub-region in the Siberian Altai at Pazyryk where horses played a significant role a millennium later than previous discussions11David Anthony argues that such factors as the development of metallurgy and mining, innovations in transport such as wheeled vehicles and horseback riding, and the domestication of grazing animals including horses, had already revolutionized steppe lifeways by the second millennium BCE because of cultural contact (Anthony and Brown, 1998: 95–103; 2003). His broad conclusion is that trans-continental Eurasian migratory behavior, aided by the horse and the wheel, provided for the transmission of transformative ideas and behaviors (2007). An even more broadly conceived narrative is proposed by Cunliffe and others where they group all such mobile Eurasian peoples under the culture name the Greeks called the “Scythians” (2019). and asks what explains the movement out of that region into the Chinese and Mongolian Altai. Our analysis demonstrates the value and importance of local studies that test and in this case challenge broad-brush interpretations.
This paper reassesses the chronology and structural standardization of Xiongnu aristocratic tombs, focusing on T-shaped rectangular tombs with a sloping dromos. While recent scholarship has debunked the simplistic dichotomy equating circular tombs with “non-elite” and T-shaped tombs with “aristocratic” for the late Xiongnu period, this paper explores the early aristocratic traditions and chronological processes behind typological changes. Applying a multi-proxy cross-dating framework (inscribed Han lacquerware, mirrors, textiles, and AMS radiocarbon determinations) and explicit terminus post quem constraints, we place the empire-wide institutionalization of T-shaped tombs most plausibly in the 1st century CE, following their late 1st century BCE appearance. Recurrent architectural packages—sloping dromoses, deep stepped pits, and massive stone blocking—indicate a standardized mortuary template with substantial defensive engineering aimed at deterring both economic looting and political desecration. New evidence from Chikhertyn Zoo (Tomb 201) adds critical early temporal depth, documenting monumental circular aristocratic tombs—including the deposition of red-lacquered four-wheeled carts rooted in steppe traditions—dating to the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE. This supports a three-stage model: an early monumental circular tradition, the emergence of T-shaped tombs, and later imperial diffusion optimizing locations within safe central and northern strongholds. Driven by internal elite dynamics, aristocratic mortuary change reflects the selective appropriation and steppe-specific recontextualization of Qin-Han practices, having nothing to do with passive diffusion or Sinicization.
Nacreous fish-hooks have been in use by humans for over 20 ka, the oldest example coming from East and Southeast Asia. However, the earliest known examples from Southwest Asia are hooks made of bone, from about 12 ka ago. At Tel Tsaf, dated to the late sixth-early fifth millennium cal BCE, two nacreous shell fish-hooks were discovered. The items are tiny, only 10–16 mm long, raising questions on their purpose and efficiency. We find that similar items dated to the fifth millennium BCE are known mostly from the Southern Arabian Peninsula, albeit stylistically different and from the Nile River Valley. In this paper we explore the possible origins and function of these unique fish-hooks and conclude that the Nile Valley is a more likely source.
Archaeological research in China has shown that the origin and dispersal of alcohol-related technologies were closely associated with Neolithization in the Yellow and Yangzi River regions. However, comparable evidence from the southeastern coast remains limited, constraining our understanding of how fermentation practices spread across coastal zones. This study presents microfossil residue analyses of pottery vessels from the Xiying shell midden site, the earliest known Neolithic settlement on Pingtan Island, Fujian. The results reveal the exploitation of diverse starchy plants, including rice, millet, Triticeae, foxnut, taro, yam, and ginger. Combined evidence from starch morphology, enzymatic damage patterns, and associated fungal remains—particularly Monascus and yeast—suggests the production of fermented alcoholic beverages. These were likely produced using a qu-based fermentation method centered on rice, with additional inputs from millet, seeds, and tubers. This study provides the earliest evidence for fermented beverages in South China and suggests that fermentation practices formed part of a broader coastal subsistence system. The presence of a rice-millet-based brewing tradition suggests that such technologies may have reached Pingtan through maritime interaction networks along China's eastern seaboard by ca. 7000 BP.
This study examines the production techniques of bronze foils excavated from the Sanxingdui site in southwestern China. The foils were mainly made of tin–copper–lead ternary alloys and tin–copper binary alloys, shaped through hammering, and decorated using incising, punching, embossing, and painting. Perforations were produced by single-sided striking, with burrs left untrimmed, reflecting a craft practice that balanced functional and ornamental considerations. The hammering techniques may have been influenced by metalworking traditions from the northern steppes, while the incised decoration likely drew inspiration from jade and gold carving techniques of the Central Plains, subsequently developing a distinctive local style. These bronze foils demonstrate both the technical innovation of Sanxingdui artisans and their ritual significance, highlighting the role of Sanxingdui within regional cultural exchange networks during the bronze age and providing insights into the technological and cultural characteristics of the ancient Shu civilization.
This study presents a systematic documentation and preliminary analysis of the granitic rock art at Bukit Batu Kepale on Bangka Island, Indonesia. It aims to document imagery, classify motif types, and explore its cultural significance within the broader context of rock art sites in the western Indonesian region. Panel-based recording and visual analysis were conducted to identify the painting techniques, tentatively categorize the motifs, and document pigment variation. The painting techniques identified include thin-line, thick-line, outline, stick figures, and solid or filled-in approaches. Geometric and linear motifs dominate the assemblage, consisting straight and parallel lines, intersectional lines, zigzags, wavy lines, concentric forms, chevrons, and grids. Pigments are predominantly red, with limited occurrence of dark red, and rare use of yellow. Anthropomorphic motifs include stylized human figures, stick figures associated with rectangular zigzag lines, triangular-bodied forms, and representations suggesting human-animal relationship. Zoomorphic imagery is limited and comprises filled-in stylized figures, occasionally depicted in association with anthropomorphic forms. Floral or botanical motifs are rare and tentatively identified, including leaf vein-like patterns. Comparative analysis indicate that Bukit Batu Kepale rock art shares similar elements with other sites in Western Indonesia region, particularly in the use of geometric abstraction, figurative representation styles and the use of reddish pigments. At the same time, the site exhibits distinctive characteristics which suggest local development. As the first documented rock art site on Bangka Island, Bukit Batu Kepale may provide new evidence for early symbolic activity and contributes a new perspective of archaeological narrative of Bangka Island. However, further absolute dating is required to refine its chronological placement and cultural attribution.
Due to the limitations of previous plant remains evidence, the adaptive farming strategies adopted by late Neolithic populations in Southwest China for newly introduced rice agriculture remain unclear. To address this, this study focuses on the Baodun site, the largest prehistoric urban settlement in the region, and conducts comprehensive analyses of the phytoliths, stable isotopes, and grain size characteristics of rice remains. Direct multi-proxy evidence from the site, combined with comparative contemporaneous analysis, demonstrates that during approximately 4500-4000 cal. BP, the morphological traits of various rice remains indicate that the inhabitants of the Baodun site employed a low labor-intensive farming strategy to flexibly adapt to unstable landform conditions and limited labour resources. Notably, within this strategy, rice cultivation was sustained primarily by precipitation and water from nearby rivers. And crops with similar water requirements such as foxtail millet and broomcorn millet were integrated into the cropping assemblage as well to enhance subsistence resilience and reduce risks. It markedly differs from the intensive wetland rice farming strategies practiced in the prehistoric middle-lower Yangtze, reflecting a localized adaptation of pre-existing cultivation methods to new ecological settings by the early inhabitants of the Chengdu Plain. Similar localized adaptive strategies have been identified in mainland Southeast Asia. Therefore, this study provides a new case for future research into the origins of ancient rice agriculture and its cultivation practices in this region.
This paper adopts an inclusive analytical perspective on the varied ways in which ceramics are embedded in the archaeological record of the Bukhara Oasis. Rather than advancing a generic discussion of pottery, it seeks to identify region-specific models of ceramic biographies through a systematic examination of the diverse contexts and functions in which ceramic materials are encountered, both as complete vessels and in fragmentary form. The discussion is anchored in the ceramic evidence recovered during excavations conducted by the French-Uzbek Archaeological Mission in the Bukhara Oasis (MAFOUB) between 2009 and 2024. The present study does not aim to review the ceramic assemblage in its entirety, but rather focuses on selected categories of ceramic material and archaeological contexts that provide evidence for reuse, repurposing, and functional overlap. Our data accordingly derives from individual observations relating to complete or semi-complete pottery vessels as well as fragmented material and, in some cases other ceramic objects relevant to the discussion. The study pursues three interrelated objectives: first, to emphasise the multifaceted character of ceramics as archaeological evidence; second, to investigate potentially distinctive patterns of use, reuse, and discard; and third, to assess how different life cycles and formation processes shape both chronological reconstruction and broader archaeological interpretation.
The Kali site is located on a piedmont alluvial fan along the right bank of the Yalong Tsangpo (Yalong Zangbo) River in Daxiong Township, northwestern Coqên County, Ngari (Ali) Prefecture, Xizang (Tibet), where large quantities of knapped lithic artifacts are distributed on the ground. The lithic assemblage is primarily of flint, quartzite, and other siliceous rocks, and includes cores, microblade cores, flakes, microblades, and various types of retouched tools. Technological analysis of the lithic assemblage shows the coexistence of two distinct reduction systems at the site: simple core-flake technology characterized by platform-oriented flaking and a microblade production system dominated by wedge-shaped microblade cores; The latter preserves products from multiple stages of reduction, including preparation, production, and discard, indicating a relatively complete chaîne opératoire of microblade production. Comparative analysis with securely dated sites in western Tibet indicates that, while retaining characteristics of core-flake technology, the Kali assemblage exhibits strong technological affinities with Early Holocene microblade industries. This technological combination is better understood as a complementary form of technological organization rather than representing a simple transitional stage. The Kali site demonstrates the expansion of human activities across the western Tibetan Plateau during the Early Holocene.
Despite the importance of the Ilkhanid and Timurid periods in Central Asia, the related pottery productions, especially unglazed and glazed earthenware, are among the least studied and understood. This paper presents recent discoveries from the site of Kafir Kala relating to a historical phase previously unknown at the site, namely the Ilkhanid and early Timurid periods (13th–15th centuries), and to the pottery productions circulating at the site during this time.The long-term investigations conducted by the Italian–Uzbek Archaeological Project -UIAP on the citadel of Kafir Kala have revealed an important pre-Islamic administrative centre. After the Arab conquest of 712 CE, the citadel was converted to a residential function and remained in use until its abandonment in the 12th century CE. Recent investigations in the southern shahristan and the necropolis, together with a reassessment of the material recovered from the excavation of the northern towers, have made it possible to extend the occupational phase of Kafir Kala into the 15th century CE.The corpus comprises unglazed productions for about 95%. Glazed earthenware vessels are mainly medium-low-quality products, with a handful of higher-quality stonepaste specimens. The overall simplicity of the wares and the finding of restored or reused items suggest a modest lifestyle, possibly reflecting the rural nature of this settlement. Nonetheless, the evidence of local pottery production and the analysis of unglazed vessels point to a still active manufacture with interesting patterns: the variety of new forms and decorations coexisted with a revival of ancient features.
This paper presents the preliminary finds of a surface survey conducted during the summer of 2022 at Elanai-kamar, a Late Neolithic – Early Bronze site in the Swat Valley (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan). The survey results seem to suggest two cultural horizons identified through ceramic comparisons: a Late Neolithic (2000–1800 BC) and an early Bronze Age (1700–1400 BC). These could shed light on the transition between the two horizons, about which little is known for the Swat region. But above all, to give insights on the persistence of Neolithic features at mountainous sites on the periphery of the urban development of the Indus Basin.
This study investigates gendered power dynamics through multivariate statistical analysis (descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, Fisher's exact tests) of the Taosi cemetery (2300–1900 BCE). By analyzing 1309 burials, we have revealed how ritual economy and resource allocation reinforced male-dominated hierarchies during early state formation. Key findings from the analysis of Taosi cemetary include: significant gender disparities in wealth and status, materialized through larger tomb chambers and richer mortuary assemblages in male burials; robust correlations among burial rank, tomb chamber size, and grave goods during the early phase, which significantly attenuated in the late phase; and the materialization of a male-centered military-ritual hierarchy through mortuary practices, dynamically adapting to shifts in kinship and production systems during early state formation in China's Central Plains.
The initial use of pottery in Island Southeast Asia has been a much-debated topic prompting researchers to highlight various characteristics to explain its uneven temporal and spatial distribution throughout the region. Many scholars identify the Neolithic associations of pottery and highlight diagnostic qualities such as red-slipping, while others point out that pottery first occurs at many locations during the Metal Age and is characterised by more surface decorations. In eastern Indonesia and Timor-Leste the features of first pottery assemblages show generic similarities but scant unifying features over time and space. By providing pottery case studies from the relatively close together cave sites of Lene Hara and Telupunu, at the very east of Timor-Leste, we are able to demonstrate the variability that attends the initial use of pottery in this region. The case studies provide detail on the chronology, characteristics and petrographic analysis of the pottery, and enable a comparison between these sites as well as within the context of other recorded Timor-Leste and regional pottery collections. The Lene Hara assemblage dates to around 3400 BP and features a significant proportion of red-slipped ware. In contrast, the pottery from Telupunu was deposited largely after 2000 years ago and shows a relatively high number of decorative techniques and designs. We discuss a range of factors that may account for the differences in pottery uptake and style.
Recent discovery at the Giribawa, Pabalugala site in Northwestern Sri Lanka reveals a significant glass bead production base in South Asia during the Early Historic Period (2nd -5th centuries CE).
Among the many spectacular finds associated with the mausoleum of China's First Emperor (259-210 BCE), by far the most well-known are the life-sized clay soldiers known as the Terracotta Army. However, also widely depicted in popular portrayals, and extremely important scientifically are two intricately made, half-sized bronze models, of a lighter chariot and a heavier two-wheeled cart. Among the huge number of components brought together to make these models, there are hundreds of gold and silver pieces, used on horse bridles and harnessing, as inlays in chariot canopy stands, and as decoration on an accompanying crossbow. This paper focuses attention on both the aesthetic and technological character of these gold and silver pieces. Via wider comparison with other gold ornaments from early Qin and wider contexts, we also explore knowledge transfer, technological change, and the growing appeal of gold in China during the Warring States Period. Detailed microscopic observations, digital microscopy, portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were all further used to complement our study of these chariot components. The results demonstrate that a traditional piece-mould casting method was employed to produce gold and silver buttons, tubes, plaques, and rings, which were joined using a series of exceptional assembling techniques to serve as functional components of the chariots. Compared to the forging, filigree, and granulation documented in early Qin goldwork, and typically assumed to denote a Western influence on Chinese metalwork, this casting technique seems more consistent with indigenous Chinese practices, as for example associated with the manipulation of bronze and iron.
Soldering technique played an important role in the production of bronze vessels in the Chinese Bronze Age (c. 2100-221 BCE), but research on pre-Qin solders remains uneven in spatiotemporal distribution. In this study, 14 solder samples used in bronze vessels excavated from two cemeteries in Qufu city were analysed, dating from the late Spring and Autumn period to the early Warring States period (c. 560-370 BCE). Compositional and metallographic analyses identify four types of joining materials: lead-tin alloy, lead, tin, and copper-based alloy. Low-melting solders predominate in the Lu state, whereas copper-based solder appears only rarely. The compositions of some lead-tin solders close to the eutectic range of the Pb-Sn system may have resulted from an empirical preference for low-melting solders. Comparison with published compositional data suggests that samples from the Lu state provide key evidence for understanding diachronic change in soldering materials during the pre-Qin period. The coexistence of different solder materials reveals that the selection of solder was influenced by many factors in the Eastern Zhou period.
During the Three Kingdoms period of Korea, the Han River Basin in Korea—capital of the early Baekje state—experienced major transformations in settlement planning, shaped by the interactions between migratory ruling groups and local commoners amid the emergence of a new sociopolitical order. Previous studies have suggested that the region began as a dispersed cluster of agriculture-based villages which were rapidly consolidated into a capital dominated by a centralized leadership occupying the urban settlement including the construction of earthen fortifications and royal tombs. However, a new settlement chronology based on Bayesian modeling of radiocarbon dates reveals a dynamic process of urban development, marked by varying levels of collective decision-making between rulers and commoners and including the construction of roads and public-facing ceremonial architecture. This long-term urban transformation reflects the processes through which rulers and local commoners interacted to mitigate collective action problems in response to first, the development of an urban capital, and later, external threats from rival polities. This case study challenges neoevolutionary models of state formation that assume a unidirectional progression toward abruptly urbanized, rigidly hierarchical political structures, instead demonstrating that sociopolitical transformation was shaped by context-dependent interactions and varying degrees of collective decision-making between diverse social actors.
