There was a mistake about the picture Squad of Foreign Troops Led by Frederick Townsend Ward,which was used in the exhibition of “Road to Rejuvenation” in the National Museum of China. It first appeared in Far East, a magazine published in Shanghai in July of 1877, but the figures in the picture were actually not Frederick Townsend Ward and his squad of foreign troops. It was another photo called “Cooke and Ningbo County Guards” taken by J.C.Watson.Several other pictures of Watson, Cooke and Ningbo County Guards in Edward Bangs Drew family album of photographs of China stored in Harvard-Yenching Institute Library as well as pictures of the same scene in US Library of Congress further prove that the armymen in the pictures were indeed Ningbo County Guards.It can thus be seen that audio-visual historical materials also need to be clearly examined before they can be used for historical research and exhibition.
二战结束前后，美国在海外已建立起一个巨大的军事基地网络，并派驻有大量军队。1951年，为了维护海外驻军的地位、利益和安全，并为其开展相关军事行动提供国际法律依据，美国以集体安全的名义在北大西洋公约的基础上缔结了《北约驻军地位协定》。以该协定为蓝本，美国又与许多国家通过谈判订立了大量有关美国海外驻军地位的双边协定，从而最终形成了美国海外驻军地位协定体系。这些驻军地位协定对于美国海外驻军人员的特权与豁免以及管辖权等问题都做出了全面的安排。相对于其它类型的国际条约，美国海外驻军地位协定体系具有其特有的非独立性、非平等性特点，它促成了美国与有关国家在霸权、主权、法律与安全方面的合法交易，且对现有国际条约体系、联合国集体安全制度以及国家主权原则都产生了重要而深远的影响。
后勤补给历来是影响战争胜负的重要因素之一，其中粮食的供应尤为关键。春秋争霸战中诞生了中国最早的一批运河，其主要目的即是便于粮食等后勤补给物资的转运，秦汉时期为了征伐南越而修建了灵渠，曹魏为平定北方开挖了一系列的运河，隋唐以后的京杭大运河不仅是重要的军事后勤补给线，而且关系到国家政治、经济等方方面面，成为维持整个帝国运转的大动脉。在传统时代，陆运主要依靠人力和畜力，长距离粮食转运效率极低，而水运则具有明显优势，因而开挖运河，连接天然河道，构建快速的后勤补给线为中国历代军事家和战略家所重视，成为中华帝国进行大规模战争的重要保障。
日本曾于1939年和1944年两次入侵广西。1944年第二次入侵广西前，日本陆军部整合各部队已有情报资料，汇编了《广西省兵要地志概说》，同时命令曾参加入侵广西的部队写出作战总结一并收录。本文节选翻译了该《概说》的第一章、第四章和附录1的内容，从广西的战略价值、广西的交通状况、宾阳会战及南宁攻击战参战部队经验总结三个方面介绍了该史料，阐明了该史料的历史价值。
冷战后期，美苏就中程核力量削减问题展开了艰苦谈判。虽然美国在谈判初期提出相关削减必须放眼全球，但由于当时美苏将更多精力聚焦于欧洲中导问题，加之分歧严重，双方的亚洲中导问题谈判一直进展迟缓。戈尔巴乔夫上台后，提出在2000年前全面销毁核武器的倡议，但仍试图将地理范围限制在欧洲。面对苏联的裁军攻势，美国转而更加强调削减亚洲中导的必要性，以图保持在谈判中的主动权。针对美国的反建议，苏联在该问题上的原有立场开始松动。在雷克雅未克峰会中，美苏初步达成了在欧洲以外地区各保留100枚中导弹头的临时协议。随着美国立场得到更多国家的支持，以及出于彻底消除欧洲中短导的考虑，苏联最终接受了“全球双零点方案”。
全国抗战时期，新四军开赴华中敌后，部队迅速发展壮大。但由于扩军要求过快、士兵成分复杂、落后分子和奸细的煽动、战斗残酷、转移频繁、战士不适应集体生活、家庭因素的影响等原因，部队及基层士兵的巩固出现了一定问题。为了巩固部队，新四军采取了一系列措施：执行正确的扩军路线，注重对战士的考查；发扬民主与友爱；解决战士的实际困难，优待战士家属；锄奸防谍，加强对动摇分子的监督和惩罚；改善教育管理方法，建立实施科学有效的管理制度；发挥党员的模范作用，开展有效的思想教育和动员；动员离队士兵归队。通过这些措施，新四军有效减少了士兵的逃亡，促进了部队的巩固，提高了部队战斗力。
The newly discovered literature on the backside of the document Wang Shi Cun Si Gao was a compilation of answer-book papers that falls into three categories for counties in Xi’an Prefecture during the Jiajing period of the Ming Dynasty. These documents provide a new understanding of the issues concerning army recruitment to replenish lost soldiers in the counties in the Ming Dynasty. First, they show the specific style of the army of prefecture-counties in the middle and late Ming Dynasty, indicating that there are also differences in the style of recording the same kind of answer-books in different prefecture-counties. Second, they reveal that in the middle and late periods of the Ming Dynasty, lilao（local officials equivalent to township heads）, in the process of army recruiting, needed to undertake a series of basic and heavy work, such as checking information, recapturing army deserters and replenishing lost soldiers. The accuracy of the reporting results from lilao might directly affect the effect of the work. Third, they prove that in the middle and late Ming Dynasty, escapee recapture was mainly the responsibility of those who were the fleeing soldiers’ lilao, neighbors, relatives and tenants, and they could go across to neighboring counties to catch army deserters. However, the central government’s compensation rules for military personnel were not strictly implemented by local authorities, or there were differences in the implementation of the rules in different places.
During Chinese People’s War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, the Japanese invaders repeatedly air-raided Lanzhou, resulting in a large number of refugees. The Gansu provincial government exerted a series of relief efforts for the refugees, including establishment of relief agencies, promulgation of relief regulations, distribution of relief funds, implementation of emergency rescue measures, evacuation of the populace, construction of air defense works, and organization of social forces to participate in relief work. The government-led relief work for Lanzhou air raid refugees had the characteristics of being phased, targeted, and extensive. The relief measures of the government to some extent protected the refugees’ lives, maintained the order of the society, and was conducive to the social stability in the rear area. However, due to various reasons such as insufficient government relief funds, inadequate relief force, and defects in the relief system, the effectiveness of the relief efforts for refugees was limited.
在军政关系中，文官控制是一种具有代表性的政策选择，也是区分不同军政关系类型的重要指标。印度独立初期，尼赫鲁政府为防范军队发动政变，通过制度设计和意识形态，实现了全面型的强文官控制。在制度设计层面，通过平衡文武力量，尼赫鲁有所克制地组建了本国的军事力量；通过塑造官僚体系内部的张力，尼赫鲁限制了高级军官影响力的膨胀。在意识形态层面，通过弱化国家安全威胁、强化文官控制规范的传播，尼赫鲁降低了军事议题在国家事务中的重要性，同时也增强了军队服从文官的意识。上述措施一方面降低了军人发动政变的可能性，但另一方面也对印度的国防建设和军事能力造成了负面影响。
During the middle period of the Chinese People’s War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, in order to ally with the USSR and US to build an international anti-fascist united front and to prepare cadres with foreign language competence for the construction of new China, the Communist Party of China and the CPC-led armed forces began to have normalized foreign language education on the basis of the existing crash foreign language training mode, starting to cultivate more high-level military and political talents in translation and interpretation. Yan’an Foreign Language School of the CPC Central Military Commission was soon founded. It was the first regular foreign language school for the People’s Army. It had the largest size and longest academic schedule among the CPC foreign language training organizations of that time, with Russian and English as its training languages. The school gradually established a relatively standardized foreign language teaching system with essential ingredients such as guiding principles for school running, organization and management, teaching staff, teaching contents, textbook compilation, teaching methods and schooling conditions. It opened up a standardized way for PLA foreign language education, and trained a number of professional talents for new China’s various construction fields and for the PLA. It also played an important role in laying the foundation for the development of foreign language education of the PRC.
军需教育近代化是晚清以来实现国家军需独立的主要途径。1903年清廷在保定的北洋陆军速成学堂内开设经理科，拉开了军需教育近代化的序幕；此后又通过设在保定的陆军军械经理师范学堂、陆军经理学堂、陆军军需学堂，接续推动军需教育。辛亥革命之后，南京临时政府创办中央陆军军需学校，初步开创了学员班、学生班两种军需教育模式。南北共和告成后，张叙忠随中央陆军军需学校迁入北京，建立了北京陆军军需学校并任校长。北京陆军军需学校通过健全教育制度、严肃校风校纪，在招生和人才培养方面多措并举，为陆海军培养了大批军需专业人才。1920年代，因北京政府财政日益困难和当局需求之变化，张叙忠接连修订《陆军军需学校条例》，积极调整办学思路，推动办学之转型，使得陆军军需学校在风云激荡的岁月中得以继续运转，军需教育之近代化亦得以继续进行。
蒋介石受孙中山与国内局势的影响，形成了对“军阀”概念的基本认知。随着个人地位的不断上升，蒋出于打击对手、塑造合法性、抗击日本侵略等目的，不断地对“军阀”概念进行塑造并灵活运用。在推翻北洋政权，敉平国民党内地方实力派的过程中，蒋对“军阀”概念的利用取得了成功。而他利用“日本军阀”的概念进行抗日动员，也有一定成效。但由于蒋本身军阀思想的存在和对军队政治与制度建设的轻视，导致他难以真正祛除国民党军队的“军阀性”，并最终失去大陆政权。考察蒋介石对“军阀”概念的塑造与利用，或可深化对其权力与概念互动模式的理解，亦可加深对蒋介石思想与政治手段的认识。
北伐期间，闽系海军高层逐渐形成了归附国民革命军的主流意识，并与国民政府互派代表建立联络、展开易帜谈判。闽系海军首要考虑的是解决生存危机，因而与生存问题密切相关的海军军饷、人员待遇和舰队安全等问题就成为双方谈判的重点。同时，为了易帜谈判的顺利促成，国民政府又主动向闽系海军提出“闽人治闽”和“统一海军”的易帜条件，这不仅为闽系海军拓展生存空间提供了有利契机，也在一定程度上助推了易帜的进程。最终，闽系海军易帜谈判虽顺利完成，但内中含有诸多利益的考量。闽系海军虽统归国民政府，但本质上双方仍是貌合神离。
20世纪五六十年代，由于美国奉行对华遏制战略，中美两国在南海问题上进行了激烈的博弈。在1951年旧金山会议前后，中美两国围绕如何处理南海诸岛问题进行了一系列斗争，最终美国主导制定的对日和约对南海诸岛归属问题作了模糊处理。随后，美国一方面支持南越、菲律宾侵犯南海主权，另一方面试图推动它们联合起来对付中国。为此，中国多次发表声明，反对美国支持的南越、菲律宾对南海诸岛的侵犯。此外，针对美国不断在该地区侵犯中国的权益，中国采取了系列反制措施：通过外交声明进行“严重警告”、通过大使级会谈进行抗议、加强对南海诸岛的治理等。中国的维权行动不仅直接维护了南海权益，而且使其对南海诸岛的管理呈现出持续性，为当前南海维权提供了法理依据。
In the period of Agrarian Revolution, multi-linkage was a distinctive feature of the revolution in western Zhejiang as a marginal area. Based on the vertical organizational network constructed by local class relations, Western Zhejiang Special Committee（WZSC） strenuously pushed forward the horizontal organizational interaction and enabled the revolutionary linkage center network of western Zhejiang to finally take shape. During the WZSC period, this center network played a crucial role in inter-regional transportation, organizational interaction and revolutionary activities, and thus was re-established several times thereafter. With the rise of Soviet movement, Kaihua and other counties in the western border part of Zhejiang Province extended the scope of revolutionary linkage across the provincial territory, completing the evolution of this linkage network. The construction and evolution of this revolutionary periphery in western Zhejiang as a self-shaping center and the revolutionary mode of linkage around the area reflected the complexity and multi-faceted nature of CPC’s early exploration of local revolution. It also provides a fresh perspective for re-examining the mirror image of the early CPC revolution in regions between the Red（CPC-controlled） and White（KMT-controlled） Areas.
在全国抗战时期，中共晋绥边区行署为保障抗日党政军需，制定了按实际产量征收救国公粮的制度。但不管是农户个人，还是整个村社，亦或是特定群体，都或多或少出现过隐瞒地亩和产量的行为。边区行署认为本位主义是此现象产生的诱因之一，为解决此问题一方面向干部和民众开展思想政治教育，强调抗战利益和民众利益彼此一致，向民众宣传为抗日负担的意识，向干部倡导“大仁政”的革命观；另一方面通过制度设计贯彻落实公粮数字，通过派遣工作团、村干部对调等方式，采取调查农户收入、自报评议登记、施以惩处等措施，防控了本位主义在公粮征收中的风险。这些举措不但为坚持持久抗战提供了物质保障，而且在某种程度上达成了户与户、村与村之间的均衡，增强了民众对中共及其政权的认同，为解放战争时期和中华人民共和国成立后加强和改进公粮征收工作提供了有益借鉴。
北宋神宗朝《武经七书》的学术渊源并非是《太平御览·经史图书纲目》中的《兵法七书》，而是仁宗、英宗朝所框定范围的“诸家兵法”。在选定《武经七书》的过程中，起主导作用的是宋神宗本人，而非朱服和何去非。神宗对于李靖兵法的推崇，对于阵法、伍法和训练的重视，是较具争议的《李卫公问对》和《尉缭子》得以入选《武经七书》的关键。《武经七书》的编纂遵循了相对合理、统一的标准，顺应了军事教育正规化的需求，促进了古代军事学术的发展，值得充分肯定。
In the early days of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, the Eighth Route Army and the KMT troops of Fu Zuoyi cooperated with each other and won the victory in the Battle at Mount Wanglaopo in West Shanxi. According to relevant materials, especially the newly discovered detailed report of the event which were written by Japanese invading soldiers, the battle took place on March 15 and 16, 1938. The Japanese troops at Mount Wanglaopo were composed of several groups of Japanese soldiers, not one squadron or battalion. The main battle situation was recorded in detail by both China and Japan, with different focuses, many of which can be verified by each other. However, in the fierce state of war, casualties on both sides and the gains of the Chinese troops cannot be accurately counted. Study and examination of the materials clarifies relevant problems and enriches the military history research of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression.
After the September 18 Incident, the Japanese Kwantung Army quickly completed its military occupation of the Northeast of China, initiating Japan’s systematic economic aggression against China. With the establishment of the puppet Manchukuo came Japan’s economic plundering plans for Northeast China which were divided into “the first phase of economic construction” and “the second phase of economic construction”. The first phase, which focused on preparations for the economic plundering of the puppet Manchukuo region, was completed in 1936, and it was immediately followed by the “Five-Year Industrial Development Plan” for puppet Manchukuo with the “Ishihara Concept” as its core and the goal was to serve Japan’s war against the Soviet Union. The Five-Year Plan called for the “development of industries necessary for a sustained war in puppet Manchukuo and North China”. As the focus of the “second phase of economic construction”, it was endorsed and supported by the Japanese government, the Kwantung Army and the government of puppet Manchukuo, and was implemented from April 1937. Soon after the outbreak of the July 7 Incident, with the expansion of the aggression war against China, Japan was compelled to revise the original plan to match up the wartime economy. The original policy of “local financing” and “self-sufficiency” was replaced by the revised policy of “Japan-Manchuria integration” and “priority on development”. This change was not only a reflection of Japan’s move from a quasi-war system to a war system in terms of policies related to Manchuria, but also a further confirmation of the nature of the puppet-Manchukuo regime.
Before the Zhongshan Warship Incident, Chiang Kai-shek’s thought of alliance with Soviet Russia underwent twists and turns, and the two key influencing factors were “facts” and “doctrines.” In the early years, Chiang advocated that KMT should learn from Soviet Russia, because he admired the latter’s independent revolution and recognized part of its “doctrines”. He headed the Sun Yat-sen Delegation to Soviet Russia, seeking support for the Chinese Revolution. The USSR Government, however, disapproved Sun Yat-sen’s Northwest Military Plan, which disappointed Chiang so much so that he believed Soviet Russia in “fact” had no sincerity to support KMT. After returning to China, therefore, Chiang took a passive attitude towards the policy of allying with Soviet Russia, though he still approved of the latter’s doctrines. Later, Soviet Russia offered KMT enormous military aid and helped consolidate its Guangdong Revolutionary Base; meanwhile, Soviet Russian advisers assisted in Chiang’s rapid rise to power. Those “facts” made Chiang believe in its sincerity and reestablished his thought of allying with Soviet Russia, which began to waver again before the Zhongshan Warship Incident because of Soviet advisers’ opposition to the Northern Expedition plan and issue of funds reduction for Huangpu Military Academy. The recognition of “doctrines” constituted significant foundation for Chiang’s thought of alliance with Soviet Russia, with “facts” being decisive to his attitude and standpoint. As a military man, Chiang regarded whether or not Soviet Russia offered military aid and supported KMT’s military plan as the foremost “facts” for sincerity. It can be seen that Chiang’s thought of allying with Soviet Russia, albeit its idealistic color, was realistic and utilitarian in essence. Chiang’s relationship with Soviet Russia lacked a solid foundation from the very beginning, which foreshadowed their later breakup and mutual hostility.
