Abstract Fully realizing the benefits of cover crops and minimizing the yield penalty requires knowing when to terminate them. Cereal rye ( Secale cereale L.) is the dominant cover crop used in the Midwest US, and previous work has shown that corn ( Zea mays L.) yield penalties began to occur more frequently when cereal rye is at ∼1000 lb dry biomass ac −1 . However, farmers do not have an easy, reliable way of estimating when this biomass occurs without time‐consuming or destructive sampling. This study evaluates the effectiveness of the Robel pole method as a rapid, practical tool for estimating aboveground cereal rye biomass accumulation in Iowa, aiming to help farmers optimize cover crop termination timing. Over two growing seasons (2022–2023) and multiple field sites, we established strong correlations (< 0.0001) between biomass accumulation, crop obstruction height, and accumulated growing degree days (GDD). Cereal rye biomass accumulation was proportional to crop obstruction height, validating the Robel pole's utility as a non‐destructive, instantaneous assessment tool. Cereal rye biomass increased linearly with GDD after a threshold of 3222 GDD, reaching up to 2617 lb ac − 1 near termination. The Robel pole method provided an easy‐to‐use proxy for biomass estimation, requiring neither temperature data nor planting dates, enabling quick decision‐making to balance environmental benefits while minimizing potential negative impacts on subsequent crops.
Plain Language Summary Winter wheat–soybean double‐cropping is becoming more common in central Illinois, but soybean planting after wheat often does not occur until late June to early July. Late planting means soybean has less time to grow, which can lead to shorter plants, fewer nodes and pods, and lower yield potential. This study examined three management practices that may improve double‐crop soybean performance in this region; they involve maturity group (MG), seeding rate, and starter fertilizer. Across 2 years, full‐season cultivars (MG 3.6–3.7) yielded 2%–5% (1.4–2.5 bu ac −1 ) more than early‐maturing cultivars (MG 3.0–3.1) when fall frost risk was low. This suggests that growers can continue to use their adapted full‐season varieties for double cropping in most years. The seeding rate had a greater effect on yield. Full‐season cultivars reached maximum yield at ∼202,000 seeds ac −1 , while early‐maturing cultivars needed ∼249,000 seeds ac −1 to maximize yield. Last, applying starter fertilizer containing nitrogen and sulfur did not consistently increase yield. Even after wheat, the small yield increase did not justify the cost. Overall, choosing an adapted MG and using higher seeding rates than for full‐season soybean planted at normal times are practical and profitable strategies for double‐crop soybean in central Illinois.
Abstract Tef [ Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter] is a key staple crop in Ethiopia, valued for its nutrition and adaptability, yet its productivity remains low among smallholder farmers. This is mainly due to the use of inappropriate seed rates and the limited availability of improved varieties, resulting in poor plant stands and low yields. A 2‐year field experiment (2022 and 2023) was conducted in Awabel and Aneded Districts using four improved varieties (Quncho, Abola, Dagim, and Kora) and five seed rates (10–30 kg ha −1 ) in a factorial randomized complete block design with three replications. Results showed that seed rate, variety, and their interaction significantly affected growth and yield. The highest grain yield was obtained from Quncho at 25 kg ha −1 , followed by Kora at the same rate. The study indicates that optimizing the seed rate with improved varieties, particularly 25 kg ha −1 for Quncho and Kora, can significantly enhance tef productivity and support sustainable production under smallholder conditions.
Plain Language Summary Biostimulant seed treatments (BSTs) are products used in farming that claim to help crops, such as soybean, grow better and produce more. While the agricultural industry surrounding these products is growing, research shows that BSTs often do not lead to noticeable increases in soybean yields in the United States. This study examined how many test sites would be needed to detect even small improvements in yield. The results showed that detecting a very small benefit (0.5 bu ac −1 yield increase) would require >200 test locations, which would take a lot of time, space, money, and effort. Because of this, researchers and farmers are encouraged to think carefully before investing in these products. If farmers still want to try them, they should run their own small‐scale tests and share the results with others. Overall, the study suggests that public research money might be better spent on other farming innovations that offer clearer benefits.
Abstract Soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production in North Carolina is supported by a network of knowledgeable field‐based professionals, including Extension agents, crop consultants, and agronomists, who regularly diagnose and manage in‐field issues. Despite the wealth of information exchanged through these interactions, much of it is never formally documented or shared for broader educational purposes. To address this gap, an online tool, Beans Gone Wild (BGW), was launched as a collaborative, statewide initiative to centralize and publicly catalog real‐time soybean production issues. Developed with input from Extension specialists, the North Carolina Plant Disease and Insect Clinic, and industry partners, BGW featured an interactive map and a searchable problem library supported by research‐based references. In the launch year (2023), 57 entries were crowdsourced onto the map, and this number grew to 89 in 2024. Diseases and insects were the top disorder categories for contributions to the map. Use of the tool expanded from 911 unique users in 2023 to 1254 users in 2024. Over the 2 years of its operation, 72 research‐based resources were highlighted within disorder reports on the map. By linking field‐based observations with science‐backed resources, BGW, which has since evolved into Root Cause Reports , empowers farmers, consultants, educators, and students to make informed and timely decisions and has inspired national adaptations, such as Crop Lookout .
Abstract Input management practices within precision agriculture systems have enabled grain and oilseed producers to apply agricultural inputs variably, facilitating resource, yield, and profit optimization. Despite significant progress in variable rate technologies, research comparing different methodologies and comprehensive guidelines to assist producers in their decision‐making processes is still lacking. This research article aimed to identify and summarize the suggested decision‐making factors for determining variable seed rates and variable fertilizer applications. A systematic review of the literature from the last 2 decades was conducted, summarizing various approaches within precision agriculture related to variable rate applications in canola ( Brassica napus L.), maize ( Zea mays L.), soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.], and wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.). Findings revealed a wide range of decision‐making factors guiding variable rate applications, from site‐specific soil characteristics to complex data‐driven recommendations. Focus crops were maize and soybean in terms of variable seeding rates, while nitrogen was the only fertilizer source discussed. Most articles appeared to address a single specific decision‐making factor, with limited comparisons drawn between different methods. The results underscore the complexity of variable rate decisions, especially in terms of the influence of weather, highlighting the overarching impact that rainfall has on grain and oilseed production in dryland systems. To maximize the effectiveness of variable rate applications across diverse production systems and justify the initial investment in these technologies, it is essential to develop adaptable, context‐specific guidelines for seed and fertilizer management.
Abstract Sub‐Saharan Africa faces a severe and growing ruminant feed deficit, constraining livestock productivity and the development of sustainable, climate‐resilient food systems. This article quantifies the deficit and assesses the role of improved cultivated forages in closing it across 10 countries: South Sudan, Sudan, Somalia, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Mali, Senegal, and Nigeria. The analysis estimates that addressing the forage gap over a 10‐year horizon would require more than 1.2 million hectares of cultivated forage, the engagement of over 1.1 million farmers, and up to 100,000 metric tons of seed. This expansion represents a major economic opportunity, with a potential forage seed market value of US$247–424 million and forage crop value of US$3.4–6.2 billion, depending on the adoption scenario. Despite growing policy recognition of feed shortages in the studied countries, systemic barriers—including weak and import‐dependent seed systems, limited private‐sector investment, land competition, and inadequate extension services—continue to restrict forage adoption. Closing the feed gap will require integrated technical and institutional measures: strengthening local seed production, harmonizing regional seed regulations, incentivizing private‐sector engagement, improving farmer training, and embedding forage development into livestock strategies. With coordinated investments, improved forages can significantly increase livestock productivity, rural incomes, and climate resilience across sub‐Saharan Africa.
Abstract Addressing Sri Lanka's vegetable sector challenges requires recognizing farmers’ problems, extension staff training needs, and researchers’ priorities. This study analyzed Department of Agriculture reports (2012–2023) covering Yala and Maha seasons across all administrative divisions in Sri Lanka. In total, 462 field problems, 793 training needs, and 216 research requirements were documented. The frequency distribution within each category and the associations between variables were analyzed using Chi‐square tests. Results indicated that more field problems were reported during the Yala season (61.3%) than the Maha season (38.8%; p < 0.05). Of these, 30.5% were attributed to pests and 26.6% to diseases ( p > 0.05). Moreover, extension staff failed to identify >29% of the field problems reported, resulting in delays in their resolution. Most field problems were reported for bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.), bitter gourd ( Momordica charanti a L.), brinjal ( Solanum melongena L.), and tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.). Bean, brinjal, cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz), and yard‐long bean [ Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis (L.) Verdc.] showed more field problems during the Yala season ( p < 0.05), whereas other crops showed no seasonal variation in reported issues ( p > 0.05). Extension staff requested more training during Yala (62.2%) than during Maha (37.8%), with key focus areas including agronomy (36.5%), pest and disease management (29.1%), and soil and fertilizer management (26.1%). A greater number of research requirements also emerged during Yala (62.5%), particularly in the areas of pest and disease management (30.6%), soil and fertilizer management (26.8%), agronomy (21.7%), and crop breeding (20.4%). Overall, most field problems, training needs, and research requirements in Sri Lanka's vegetable sector are related to pest and disease management and are influenced by season, crop type, and regional context.
Hybrid selection is one of the first and most critical decisions made in a farming operation, and corn (Zea mays L.) hybrids respond differently to management practices like seeding rates. Understanding the effect of hybrid selection and seeding rate on corn yield and economic return is increasingly relevant as we seek to enhance the rate of productivity and financial viability in farming systems. Research studies conducted in four Nebraska fields during the 2018 and 2019 growing seasons evaluated the effect of hybrids and seeding rates on corn yields and partial economic returns. Eight hybrids and five seeding rates were studied across eight environments. Half of the environments were irrigated, and half were rainfed. Environments, hybrids, and seeding rates directly affected corn yields and the subsequent partial economic returns. The selection of hybrids and optimum seeding rates best adapted to specific environmental conditions resulted in more productivity and profitability. The highest yield ceilings for the hybrids studied ranged from 227 to 254 bushels per acre (overall mean = 237) under a seeding rate range of 27,945 to 41,491 seeds per acre. The highest net returns for the studied hybrids ranged from $81 to $173 per acre (overall mean = $120) with seeding rates ranging from 26,264 to 33,737 seeds per acre. The estimated average optimum seeding rate for maximum yield was 34,424 seeds per acre and 27,881 seeds per acre for maximum net return. Hybrids with longer relative maturities grown with irrigation had higher yield and net return potential compared to shorter maturities grown under rainfed conditions.
Nitrogen plays a critical role in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production. Interest in using broiler (Gallus gallus domesticus) litter has increased in recent years due to its nutrient and soil health benefits. However, growers typically do not discount the N present in broiler litter and apply a full dose of fertilizer N. A five site-years field study was conducted to assess the effects of supplemental fertilizer N rate (0, 25, 45, 55, 70, and 85 lbs acre- 1) on broiler-litter-fertilized cotton lint yield, above-ground biomass, nutrient uptake, lint turnout, and fiber quality. Broiler litter was applied at a rate of 2 tons acre- 1 yr- 1 before planting. Six treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Cotton receiving only broiler litter (i.e., zero fertilizer N treatment) did not exhibit lint yield declines relative to the combination of broiler litter and fertilizer N at low lint yield levels (864 to 1313 lbs acre- 1). However, a positive crop response to fertilizer N (up to 55 lbs acre- 1) was observed at higher mean lint yield levels (1775 to 2270 lbs acre- 1). Fertilizer N had no significant effect on above-ground biomass, lint turnout, or fiber quality measurements in any growing season. Overall, these results suggest that supplementing broiler-litter-fertilized cotton with fertilizer N is required for high production potential. Low-yielding broiler-litter-fertilized cotton did not respond to supplemental N.
Rising production costs and declining commodity prices have compelled farmers to reassess their input and management strategies. Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr] seed costs, in particular, have continued to increase due to advances in biotechnology, higher-yielding germplasm, and available seed treatments, accounting for 32-35% of the total operational expenses in current soybean production systems. Optimizing seeding rate is therefore one area of consideration for improving profitability and maximizing return on investment. However, soybean yield response to plant population density is influenced by the combination of several factors, including water availability, temperature, radiation interception, planting practices, and crop growth and development. Unlike many other crops, soybean exhibits high phenotypic plasticity, allowing plants to adjust their growth and yield components (e.g., number of pods and seeds per plant) in response to varying plant population densities. As a result, the literature has shown that soybean can produce comparable yields across a wide range of plant population densities. The objectives of this management guide were to (i) provide an overview of factors influencing soybean yield response to seeding rate and plant population density and (ii) summarize recommendations by land grant university Extension agronomists across soybean-producing states in the United States.
Warm-season annual (WSA) forages enhance the summer forage supply in subtropical livestock systems. The objective of this study was to determine forage mass (FM), nutritive value, nitrogen (N) yield, and botanical composition in 12 forage mixtures managed under two harvest strategies (simulated grazing vs. baleage). A randomized complete block design with a split-plot arrangement and three replications was used. Treatments consisted of four grasses: brown-top millet (Urochloa ramosa L.; BM), Japanese millet (Echinochloa esculenta L.; JM), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.; PM), and sorghum-sudangrass [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench & times; S. sudanense (Piper) Stapf.; SS]; four legumes: cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.; CW], hairy indigo (Indigofera hirsuta L.; HI), sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.; SH), and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.; SD]; and four mixtures: PM+SH, PM+SH+CW, SS+SH+CW, and Ray's Crazy Mix (RM). Under the simulated grazing and baleage strategies, treatments were harvested every 30 and 90 days, respectively. There was a forage system & times; harvest strategy interaction for FM and N yield (p < .05). Greater FM was obtained for JM, SH, and RM under the baleage strategy than simulated grazing (11,908, 14,289, and 18,669 vs. 5565, 10,344, and 9476 lb dry matter ac(-1), respectively). Legumes and mixtures had greater crude protein concentrations (up to 17%) and lower neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber concentrations, ranging from 20% to 45% and 15% to 30%, respectively. Weed percentage exceeded 65% in HI and SD but was <26% in SS-, BM-, and PM-based mixtures. Results show that mixtures and monocultures managed under proper harvest strategies improve productivity, nutritive value, and support weed suppression in WSA low-input systems.
Plain Language Summary Annual bluegrass ( Poa annua L.) is a problematic weed in grass seed production fields because it germinates over a long period. It is difficult to selectively control, and its presence incurs increased seed cleaning costs. Research in eastern USA suggests variability across regions when using environmental‐based models to predict annual bluegrass seed germinability. Data from western USA grass seed production is lacking; therefore, researchers collected annual bluegrass seed in Corvallis, Oregon every 50 growing degree days (GDD 0C ; base 0°C) over three years and subjected them to germination testing. Seeds collected prior to 300 GDD were less likely to germinate compared to subsequent timings, except when 12 of 14 seeds germinated at 50 GDD 0C in 2025. Findings suggest that a GDD based annual bluegrass seed germinability model may be beneficial in this system. Germination occurred up to 28 days, suggesting that the standard 21‐day test may be inadequate to fully quantify germinability.
Maximizing soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] yield requires effective management of Cercospora leaf blight (CLB), a significant foliar disease that can reduce productivity and grain quality. The impact of CLB is particularly notable in regions such as the mid-southern United States, where species of Cercospora, predominantly C. cf. flagellaris, cause substantial yield losses and purple seed stain. This guide details the environmental factors and symptom identification for CLB, providing diagnostic methods crucial for accurate assessment. Various management strategies, including crop rotation, tillage practices, and fungicide applications, are also outlined. In addition, selecting genetically resistant cultivars is highlighted as the most effective and sustainable approach to mitigating the economic impact of CLB and enhancing soybean production. The objectives of this management guide are to describe (a) techniques for identifying and confirming CLB incidence and (b) effective strategies for managing CLB.
Golf course superintendents use plant growth regulators (PGRs) to suppress growth, enhance turfgrass quality, save water, and maintain healthier, more resilient putting greens. Applicators often tank-mix PGRs with micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn), macronutrients (Ca, Mg), or use spray water high in Ca and Mg (e.g., well water). These elements are divalent cations that can potentially interact with spray solutions. Although the effects of tank-mixing divalent cations with herbicides are well-documented, their effects on PGR performance are not. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of Ca, Fe, Mg, Mn, and Zn in spray solutions on the efficacy of trinexapac-ethyl (Primo Maxx; Syngenta) when applied to hybrid bermudagrass. The results demonstrate that Primo Maxx effectively suppresses growth when tank-mixed with divalent cations, allowing golf course managers to safely combine the PGR with micronutrients or apply it in hard water without compromising performance.
The use of shallow subsurface drip irrigation (S3DI) systems in row crops can be economically favorable, provided the system remains in the field without major repairs for a substantial period. This research documents installation, repairs, retrieval, and partial economic returns of S3DI systems in service for 4, 5, 6, and 8 years. Irrigation systems were installed on five different fields for specific agronomic research projects. Either corn or cotton was grown in each field over the life of the systems. Crop yields were documented across years and systems. At the end of the project, drip laterals were retrieved, and the number of repairs in each field was documented. Installation costs across all irrigation systems ranged from $70 to $86 ac(-1) per year, averaged over the life of the system. Repair costs ranged from $1 to $18 ac(-1) per year, depending on the length of service and amount of biological and mechanical damage to the drip tubing. Overall, it would take between 10 and 20 years for the repair costs to exceed the replacement cost, depending on labor costs and/or the level of damage to the drip tubing.
The Delmarva Peninsula in the Eastern United States faces growing threats from saltwater intrusion, necessitating accurate and timely salinity diagnostics to reduce crop productivity losses. The globally recognized saturated paste (SP) extraction method, which yields critical measures, including electrical conductivity (ECe), is labor-intensive, costly, and generally unavailable in routine Eastern U.S. laboratories, creating logistical barriers for effective management. The objective of this study was to establish the utility of converting routine Mehlich-3-extractable sodium (M3-Na) results directly into standard SP equivalents and to present additional region-specific conversion relationships to improve the accessibility of salinity and sodicity risk assessments. We analyzed 291 soil samples collected from 13 salt-affected Delmarva agricultural fields (2020-2023) using standard SP methods, rapid EC measurements (EC1:2, EC1:5), and M3 and ammonium acetate extractions. Strong linear correlations were observed between M3-Na and the rapid EC methods; EC1:2 proved to be an efficient proxy for ECe. These reliable, region-specific conversion models (e.g., ECe = 2.11 & times; EC1:2 and ECe = 1.13 & times; M3-Na without intercept) enable laboratories to efficiently report critical ECe values and perform timely screening for salinity and the associated sodicity risk using existing M3 data, effectively eliminating financial and logistical barriers for managing salt-affected soils in the Mid-Atlantic.
Wear stress can negatively impact the quality of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) putting greens. Phosphonate fungicides formulated with proprietary pigments often include label language indicating plant health benefits, such as alleviating abiotic and biotic stresses. The objective of this study was to determine whether pigmented phosphonate fungicides affect the wear response of creeping bentgrass managed as golf course putting green turf. Pigmented fosetyl-Al and pigmented K-phosphite were applied at 14-day intervals to 'Shark' creeping bentgrass managed as golf course putting green turf during May-July in 2017 and 2018 and subjected to wear. Wear reduced both qualitative and quantitative measurements on creeping bentgrass compared with no-wear plots. Treatment rankings for turf quality and turf color were pigmented fosetyl-Al > pigmented K-phosphite > nontreated. Creeping bentgrass treated with pigmented phosphonate fungicides and subjected to wear exhibited higher green cover and greater turf density compared with nontreated creeping bentgrass subjected to wear. Our research suggests that including pigmented phosphonate fungicides into fungicide rotations for turfgrass disease control may provide the additional benefit of mitigating wear stress.
With the growth in the craft brewing industry, farmers are interested in producing winter malting barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Timely barley planting is important; however, wet weather often results in delays. The objective of this experiment was to identify the agronomic optimum seeding rate (the seeding rate at which yield is maximized) for a range of barley planting dates and to examine the effects of planting date and seeding rate on grain quality parameters, including test weight, kernel plumpness, protein content, germination, and deoxynivalenol. A study of planting date and seeding rate was conducted over 2 years at one location in northwest Ohio. Treatments included planting dates (approximately every 10 days) between September 3 and November 4, and four seeding rates ranging from 1.0 to 2.5 million seeds ac-1. Across planting dates, seeding rate had a minimal effect on grain yield. During the first year of the study, an additional 120,000 seeds ac-1 were needed to maximize yield on the latest planting date (November 4) compared with the earliest planting date (September 3). Most grain quality parameters were met across planting date and seeding rate combinations, except for kernel plumpness. In the first year, kernel plumpness was below the industry standard when barley was planted on October 24 and November 4 at 1.5-2.5 million seeds ac-1, which may result in the grain being rejected. In northwest Ohio, winter malting barley may be seeded at 1.66-1.78 million seeds ac-1 across a range of planting dates and still achieve the required grain quality parameters.
Potential price premiums for reduced carbon footprint of field crops have led producers to be concerned about the carbon footprint of their crops. This research addresses that concern, using two life-cycle emissions models, Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Technologies (GREET) and Integrated Farm System Model (IFSM), to establish carbon intensity (CI) that producers might obtain for corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] produced under various conditions in three Northern Plains sub-regions. The expected CIs range from 0.24 to 0.42 lb CO(2)e lb(-1) of grain dry matter. Expected CIs for rainfed crops are 8%-18% higher than those estimated for comparable irrigated crops. The expected CIs are intended to be similar to those that a producer would likely obtain from employing either the GREET or the IFSM model for their own crops. Carbon emissions offsets for switching from conventional to reduced tillage are not yet well established, but as estimated by the current GREET model that tillage switch would reduce corn CI by as much as 19%, and soybean CI even more. Switching from conventional tillage to no-till with a cover crop would reduce expected corn CI by around 90% for irrigated corn and well over 100% for rainfed corn. Comparable tillage switching for soybean would result in CI reductions of up to 129% under irrigation and 157% for rainfed production. Thus, the models identify a wide range of possible CIs that a producer might be able to achieve.
