ABSTRACT This study presents a numerical analysis of thermoelectric generators (TEGs) integrated with a heat sink and phase change materials (PCMs), focusing on their combined impact on thermal management and power output. The module, comprising a bismuth telluride (Bi 2 Te 3 )‐based TEG coupled with a paraffin wax PCM, was evaluated using finite element analysis across a range of PCM thicknesses. Results indicate that incorporating PCM effectively reduces the cold‐side temperature during the melting process, thereby sustaining a more stable temperature gradient (Δ T ) across the module. This leads to significant enhancement in the output power by maintaining a higher Δ T between the hot and cold junctions during the phase change process. As a result, the peak output power increased by approximately 3.5 times compared to a standalone TEG operating under identical conditions. While peak power magnitude varied only slightly with PCM thickness, the duration of peak output improved significantly from 60 s at 1 mm to 360 s at 3 mm. Among the configurations studied, a PCM thickness of 3 mm delivered the most effective balance between thermal buffering and power stability. These findings offer quantitative insights for the design of compact PCM‐assisted TEG modules intended for operation under fluctuating thermal inputs.
ABSTRACT To mitigate the mismatch between energy supply and demand in power grids with high renewable energy penetration, this paper develops an energy storage system combining the heat pump and steam accumulator adopting multi‐stage heat pump heating and steam accumulator fast charging and discharging, featuring long lifespan, fast response, and no geographic constraints. For the proposed system, sensitivity analysis of key parameters, thermodynamic performance analysis, economic performance analysis, and dynamic performance analysis of key components have been carried out. The throttle valve contributes the largest exergy loss at 58.5%. The feed water pump ranks second at 17.5%, and the steam accumulator third at 6.1%. Economic analysis gives an LCOS of 0.1639 $/kWh. Its full‐lifecycle NPV reaches 86 million USD, with a dynamic payback period of 10.32 years. The final design RTE of the system is 57.91%. The research results in this paper provide a reference for energy storage technology solutions in centralized renewable energy utilization scenarios, such as large‐scale wind and solar power bases.
ABSTRACT Understanding the interplay between electrode nanostructure and electrolyte chemistry is crucial for designing high‐performance supercapacitors. Here, we investigate the electrolyte‐dependent charge storage behavior of V 2 O 5 nanoparticles synthesized via a facile sol–gel method. Comprehensive structural and morphological analyses confirm uniform V 2 O 5 nanoparticles with high surface area, promoting efficient ion diffusion and redox activity. Electrochemical performance was systematically evaluated in 1 M acidic (H 2 SO 4 ), alkaline (KOH), and neutral (Na 2 SO 4 ) electrolytes using cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Among all electrolytes, KOH delivers the highest specific capacitance of 430 F g −1 at 1 A g −1 (446 F g −1 at 5 mV s −1 ) and excellent rate capability, attributed to high K + ionic mobility and favorable desolvation. Na 2 SO 4 exhibits higher cycling stability, retaining 90% of initial capacitance over 6000 cycles, while H 2 SO 4 provides moderate capacitance (380 F g −1 at 1 A g −1 ) with intermediate stability. This study establishes a direct correlation between electrolyte environment, structural evolution, and electrochemical performance, providing actionable insights for designing durable and efficient V 2 O 5 ‐based supercapacitors.
ABSTRACT The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is expected to significantly transform the transportation sector due to their environmental benefits and reduced carbon emissions. However, the rapid growth in EV charging demand introduces several challenges in Radial distribution Systems (RDS), including increased power losses, voltage instability, and imbalance between generation and consumption. This study addresses these challenges by optimizing the integration of EV charging stations (EVCSs) and shunt capacitors (SCs) within the RDS. The objective is to maximize Net Present Value (NPV) by simultaneously reducing power losses, improving voltage profiles, and reducing Expected Interruption Cost (EIC), while incorporating compensation coefficients for reliability assessment. To achieve this, a Hybrid Gray Wolf–Cuckoo Optimization (HGCO) algorithm is proposed, combining the exploitation capability of Gray Wolf Optimization (GWO) with the exploration strength of the Cuckoo Search (CU) algorithm. The proposed method is validated on IEEE 33‐bus and 118‐bus systems. Simulation results demonstrate a reduction in active power loss (APL) of 34.45% and 31.08% for the respective systems. Annual energy loss cost savings are 35 268 and 209 153.10 $/year, while EIC is reduced by 14 029.80 and 48 699.30 $/year. The proposed approach also achieves a net annual profit of 27 049 and 221 281 $/year, confirming its economic effectiveness. In addition, the study incorporates Vehicle‐to‐Grid (V2G) operation using an aggregated modeling approach, enabling bidirectional power flow and further enhancing system performance. The obtained results confirm that the proposed HGCO‐based approach effectively enhances both the technical performance and economic viability of modern RDS.
ABSTRACT Hydrogen adsorption in activated‐carbon beds is a promising option for near‐ambient hydrogen storage, but its performance is strongly limited by heat release during charging and heat demand during discharging. This study numerically analyzes hydrogen adsorption and desorption in a vertical steel vessel packed with activated carbon and surrounded by an external heat transfer fluid (HTF) jacket. A transient conjugate numerical model is developed to solve the coupled mass, momentum, and energy balances in the porous bed, steel wall, and HTF domains. Hydrogen adsorption is described using the Dubinin–Astakhov isotherm and linear driving force kinetics. Four HTFs, namely water, thermal oil, air, and helium, are examined during adsorption under identical reactor geometry and imposed inlet conditions, while nitrogen is used instead of water during desorption to avoid possible freezing under low‐temperature operation. This replacement is treated as a practical operating choice rather than as an assumption of equivalence between water and nitrogen. The results show that HTF selection strongly affects hot‐spot formation, cooling and heating rates, wall heat flux, and usable storage capacity. At t = 400 s, water gives the lowest peak bed temperature, 376.5 K, and the highest hydrogen uptake, 22.5 mmol g −1 , whereas air gives the lowest uptake, 19.0 mmol g −1 , and air and helium produce higher peak temperatures of about 395–397 K. Compared with the air‐cooled baseline, water increases the usable hydrogen uptake by 18.4%, while oil provides a 10.5% improvement. During desorption at t = 4400 s, oil supplies heat more effectively from the jacket to the bed, whereas gaseous HTFs promote stronger cold‐core formation because of their limited sensible heat capacity. In general, liquid HTFs provide stronger thermal management than gaseous HTFs, reducing adsorption hot spots and improving hydrogen uptake. The findings provide quantitative guidance for HTF selection and external jacket design in activated‐carbon hydrogen storage reactors operating near ambient conditions.
ABSTRACT This article presents the optimal design, energy management, and feasibility analysis of a photovoltaic (PV), wind energy (WE), and pumped hydro storage plant (PSP)‐based off‐grid microgrid at low air density, located in hilly terrain. The optimized size of PV, WE, capacity of upper reservoir (UPR), and inverter is determined by minimizing the cost of energy (COE) subject to the loss of power supply probability (LPSP) constraint. The popular metaheuristic optimization algorithms, namely particle swarm optimization (PSO), differential evolution (DE), grey wolf optimization (GWO), sine‐cosine algorithm (SCA), whale optimization algorithm (WOA), and Moth‐flame optimization (MFO) algorithm, are used to minimize the COE. With the help of different statistical analyses, such as normality tests using the Shapiro–Wilk test and nonparametric tests such as Friedman–ANOVA and Mann–Whitney tests, it indicates that PSO provides the most reliable, optimal, accurate, and lowest COE, whereas DE takes the least simulation time. The COE obtained at 0% maximum allowed limits of LPSP (LPSP mxi ) and 5% LPSP mxi is 0.2128 and 0.2041 $/kWh, respectively, indicating electricity is available at an economical price, keeping 100% and 95% supply reliability, respectively. The optimized sizes obtained at 0% LPSP mxi are PV 875 units, WE 100 units, inverter 60 units, and V UPR 7657 m 3 . Similarly, the optimized sizes at 5% LPSP mxi are PV 745 units, WE 100 units, inverter 60 units, and V UPR 7169 m 3 . The model is analyzed sensitively, which reflects that the size of microgrid systems varies with changes in P L , and the COE also changes significantly. Thus, the optimally designed PV‐WE‐PSP‐based off‐grid microgrid ensures feasibility in low air density areas, achieves high supply reliability through an efficient energy management strategy, and delivers a 100% renewable energy supply.
ABSTRACT Accurate parameter identification and terminal‐voltage estimation are essential for precise state‐of‐charge estimation and effective control of lithium‐ion battery management systems. Conventional optimization methods, such as Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Honey Badger Optimization (HBO), are prone to local optima under certain nonlinear operating conditions and are less effective at identifying parameter values that minimize the root mean square error (RMSE) in nonlinear battery models at specific temperatures. Hence, this study introduces the Adaptive Honey Badger Optimization (AHBO) algorithm by incorporating Sine‐chaotic population, adaptive exploration, adaptive exploitation, diversity preservation, and conditional recomputation mechanisms, thereby maintaining an effective balance between global exploration and local exploitation. It has been achieved through adaptively regulated search dynamics and a diversity‐dependent exponential‐decay mechanism. The proposed AHBO method, with static OCV–SoC values, is used for parameter identification and battery voltage estimation in the equivalent circuit models of the One‐RCH and Two‐2RCH configurations. The results demonstrate that AHBO achieves lower terminal‐voltage estimation RMSE values, ranging from 7.85 to 16.64 mV for the Two‐RCH configuration over the temperature range of 45°C to −15°C, compared with PSO and HBO. In addition, the proposed method reduces the convergence time by approximately 70%–75% and enhances the dynamic terminal‐voltage response, particularly at low temperatures. After parameter identification, a comparative study of state‐of‐charge estimation was conducted using the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and the Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) methods. The EKF exhibited a physically consistent model‐based SoC response with RMSE values of 0.87% at 45°C, 1.18% at 15°C, and 1.48% at −15°C. However, the GRU demonstrated better estimation accuracy at the intermediate temperature of 15°C (RMSE: 0.73%) and comparable accuracy at −15°C (RMSE: 1.40%), while showing reduced accuracy at 45°C (RMSE: 1.36%).
ABSTRACT Electricity generation from sustainable and renewable energy sources has become one of the key research priorities recently. The increasing investments in wind and solar power generation have highlighted the necessity of developing efficient energy storage technologies for smart grid systems and electric vehicle infrastructures. In this context, the need for more durable, environmentally friendly, and technically advanced energy storage systems has become increasingly important. Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) represent one of the most promising large‐scale energy storage technologies, attributed to their high efficiency, extended cycle life, and design versatility. A crucial element of VRFBs is the proton exchange membrane (PEM), which facilitates proton transfer and directly affects the overall system performance. The elevated expense and restricted chemical stability of commercial membranes like Nafion have necessitated the search for alternative, cost‐effective, and resilient materials. In this study, a novel membrane with high proton conductivity, mechanical strength, and cost efficiency was developed as an alternative to Nafion. Polyphenyl sulfone (PPSU), a thermally and chemically stable engineering polymer, was chemically sulfonated and fabricated into fibrous membranes using the electrospinning technique. The synthesized sulfonated PPSU (sPPSU) membranes demonstrated an ion exchange capacity (IEC) of 2.1 meq g −1 and a proton conductivity of 1.68 × 10 −2 S cm −1 . These results indicate that the developed sPPSU‐based membranes provide a promising, durable, and cost‐effective alternative as PEMs for fuel cells and all redox flow battery applications.
ABSTRACT This case study investigates practical approaches for evaluating commercially available vanadium electrolytes (VEL) for vanadium flow battery applications. From the perspective of a potential electrolyte customer, a range of wet chemical and instrumental analytical methods was applied to characterize commercial electrolyte samples obtained from multiple suppliers. The results demonstrate that potentiometric titration, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP‐OES), and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP‐MS) provide a robust analytical framework for determining the main electrolyte components and inorganic impurities, although method‐dependent deviations were observed for selected parameters. In contrast, short‐term galvanostatic charge–discharge testing showed limited sensitivity for differentiating electrolytes of similar composition and purity. Thermal stability testing of electrolyte at high states of charge revealed clear differences between samples and indicated that phosphate concentration and the ratio of total vanadium to sulfate concentration ( C V / C S ) are important parameters influencing electrolyte stability. Furthermore, gas phase analysis of hydrogen evolution from vanadium(II)‐containing electrolytes proved to be a useful method for detecting impurity‐related effects that are not captured by conventional electrochemical testing. Overall, the study identifies a set of practical analytical metrics and complementary testing approaches that enable a more structured and application relevant assessment of vanadium electrolyte quality in a developing commercial market.
ABSTRACT A hybrid hydraulic energy storage device was innovatively designed by integrating the characteristics of spring‐type and heavy‐load energy storage structures. The dynamic response of this device within the wave energy storage system was analyzed from a macroscopic perspective by establishing a dynamic model and using irregular periodic waves as input conditions. The reliability of the proposed dynamic model was validated through experimental verification and dynamic simulations. Furthermore, optimization strategies were proposed to enhance the overall performance of the system, focusing on the hydraulic energy storage inlet, the spring energy storage module, and the heavy‐load energy storage module. Specifically, these strategies include installing a one‐way valve at the energy storage inlet, adjusting the maximum elastic force of the spring module to match the gravity of the heavy‐load module, and configuring the gravity of the heavy‐load module, and configuring the heavy‐load gravity as the operational load for the hydraulic energy storage mode. After implementing these optimization strategies, the energy storage efficiency was improved by approximately 29.2%. The dynamic simulation and module‐level optimization of the hybrid hydraulic energy storage device provide valuable insights and a potential reference for the engineering application of wave energy storage technologies.
ABSTRACT This study proposes a bi‐level optimization framework for coordinated electric vehicle charging and discharging in renewable‐based distribution networks. The upper‐level problem minimizes feeder losses from the Distribution Grid Operator perspective, while the lower‐level problem minimizes charging costs for electric vehicle owners under time‐of‐use electricity tariffs. The model incorporates wind and solar generation, seasonal operating conditions, and bidirectional vehicle‐grid power exchange. The proposed framework is implemented in the General Algebraic Modeling System using the Extended Mathematical Programming approach, in which the lower‐level problem is reformulated through Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions. A 28‐bus radial distribution system is used to evaluate three operating modes: the base case, coordinated charging with renewable energy, and coordinated charging with renewable energy and bidirectional grid interaction. The results show that system losses decrease from 6.519 MW in the base case to 5.703 MW in winter and 6.115 MW in summer without bidirectional operation. With bidirectional operation, losses are further reduced to 4.945 MW in winter and 5.413 MW in summer. Charging costs also decrease from 196.35 to 166.59 dollars in winter and from 205.17 to 191.33 dollars in summer. These results confirm the effectiveness of the proposed framework in reducing losses and charging costs.
ABSTRACT The advancement of sustainable energy storage systems is crucial to address the growing global energy demands and environmental challenges. In this study, we demonstrate the sustainable synthesis and electrochemical assessment of porous α‐Fe 2 O 3 nanostructures for asymmetric supercapacitor applications. Two‐different synthetic approaches such as green‐method from Aristolochia bracteate and conventional combustion method were employed to synthesize α‐Fe 2 O 3 , enabling a comparative analysis of morphological, structural, and electrochemical characteristics. XRD analysis confirmed the rhombohedral phase of α‐Fe 2 O 3 with high crystallinity in both samples. FESEM and HRTEM micrographs revealed well‐defined porous structures with increased surface roughness and uniform particle dispersion in the green‐synthesized sample, promoting enhanced ion accessibility. The green‐electrode reveals maximum half‐cell specific capacitance of 914 F/g at 1 A/g in alkaline electrolyte. The asymmetric device with the green‐electrode as the cathode and commercial carbon as the anode demonstrated maximum full‐cell specific capacitance of 130 F/g at 1 A/g, with maximum energy and power density of ~18 Wh/kg and ~1663.74 W/kg at 1 and 10 A/g, respectively. These enhanced properties are attributed to the hierarchical porous structure, improved conductivity, and eco‐friendly synthesis approach, which contribute to sustainable material development. This study delivers the potential of green‐synthetic strategies in producing cost‐effective, environmentally benign, and electrochemically efficient materials for next‐generation supercapacitors.
ABSTRACT The increased charging demand of electric vehicles (EVs) and fuel cell EVs has created an additional burden on the fossil fuel‐based electric grid. The article proposes a hybrid energy system (HES)‐based integrated EV charging and hydrogen refueling stations with mobility‐assisted storage flexibility, that is, a mobile charging unit (MCU). As the system has multiple sources and services, a priority‐based energy management framework is designed to maximize use of renewable energy sources (RES). To achieve techno‐economic benefits, a lexicographic optimization with slack‐based demand modeling is introduced to coordinate renewable generation, hydrogen production, grid interaction, and MCU scheduling under realistic operational constraints. Results demonstrate that the proposed system significantly improves RES utilization up to 95% and reduces grid dependency up to 86.53%. Multiobjective optimization enhances economic performance by 19.33% and customer satisfaction by 95% in all seasons. The proposed system provides a significant annual profitability and sustainability for multienergy charging infrastructure.
ABSTRACT This paper investigates the dynamic performance of a three‐phase, three‐wire, dual‐stage grid‐synchronized photovoltaic (PV)‐hybrid energy storage system (HESS) through Hardware‐in‐Loop (HIL) prototyping. Sigmoid Least Logarithmic Absolute Difference (SLLAD) regulator is implemented for Voltage Source Converter (VSC) control. SLLAD with a mixed norm function ensures rapid convergence characteristics while minimizing steady‐state error. SLLAD permits the VSC to accomplish multiple grid‐following and grid‐supportive functions, in addition to PV power injection to the grid through Point of Common Coupling (PCC). SLLAD‐controlled VSC effectively mitigates current harmonics, balances load, and compensates active/reactive power at PCC, thereby providing short‐term ancillary services to the grid with integrated HESS. HESS, comprising a battery and ultracapacitor (UC), manages transient and sustained uncertainties associated with intermittent PV power generation and load variations. Second Order Generalized Integrator (SOGI)‐Frequency Locked Loop (FLL) algorithm is utilized to filter distorted grid voltages during distorted grid conditions. In HIL setup, PV‐HESS plant is simulated using OP5700, and SOGI‐FLL‐assisted SLLAD control strategy is implemented on TMS320F28379 microcontroller. Experimentation outcomes validate the proposed PV‐HESS system and confirm its compliance with IEEE 1547 standards.
ABSTRACT The two‐phase Eulerian–Eulerian solver is developed to analyze natural convection within a differentially heated square enclosure with water‐based micro‐encapsulated phase change material (MEPCM) slurry. The model solves the conservation equations for the liquid and MEPCM phases separately, with coupling between them is done through interfacial momentum and energy exchanges. Finite difference techniques, along with sixth‐order accuracy compact schemes for the nonlinear terms, are employed to discretise the equations. The MEPCM particles are considered in such a way that they melt close to the hot wall and solidify adjacent to the cold wall to make use of the latent heat benefits. After validating the solver with numerical and experimental data, the study analyses the transient evolution of the melting front, offering insights into phase transition behavior and underlying heat transfer mechanisms. This study also examines the effects of MEPCM volume fraction, hot wall temperature, and different phase change materials ( n ‐Octadecane and n ‐Eicosane) on melting dynamics, flow fields and heat transfer. The MEPCM particles suspended in water enhance heat transfer by increasing the effective heat capacity through latent heat. At a temperature difference of K () and volume fraction, = 15% the heat transfer improves by 54.55% compared to water. However, at a higher temperature difference of K (), the enhancement drops to approximately 35.08%, indicating that at larger temperature differences, the stronger buoyancy forces dominate, increasing heat transfer, limiting the impact of MEPCM particles. Notably, heat transfer enhancement occurs only if the MEPCM particles undergo phase change within the cavity. If the hot wall temperature is too low to cause MEPCM melting, the lack of phase change reduces the slurry's overall thermal conductivity, thereby decreasing heat transfer.
ABSTRACT In the battery thermal management of new energy vehicles, air cooling occupies a certain position. However, the traditional F‐type air‐cooling structure has problems such as uneven gas flow and partial heat accumulation. In response, we designed an F‐step air‐cooling structure suitable for a 24‐cell 18 650 lithium battery module. We studied the effects of air inlet position, spacing between batteries, battery arrangement angle, and inlet airspeed on cooling performance. Compared with the traditional F‐type structure, this F‐step design allows air to better flow into the gaps between batteries and also reduces areas of locally high temperature. The results show that arranging the outlets above channels 4 and 6 decreases the maximum temperature ( T max ) by 1.139°C and the maximum temperature difference (Δ T max ) by 0.829°C. A cell spacing of 3 mm provides the best balance between flow distribution and heat dissipation, while a cell arrangement angle of 22.5° further reduces the T max and Δ T max by 1.704°C and 1.543°C, respectively, compared with the in‐line arrangement. Orthogonal optimization confirms that the optimal configuration consists of outlets above channels 4 and 6, 3 mm cell spacing, and a 22.5° arrangement angle. The results of this study were achieved using computational modeling and can provide a reference for structural optimization of compact air‐cooled battery modules.
ABSTRACT This study investigates whether energy storage innovation reduces environmental sustainability risk (ESR) and energy affordability risk (EAR) in six European Union countries over the 2008–2023 period within the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) framework. An extended STIRPAT model and the bias‐corrected method of moments (BCMM) are employed to evaluate the effects of energy storage patents alongside economic growth, urbanization, and environmental taxes. The results show that a 1% increase in energy storage patents reduces ESR by approximately 0.032%, underscoring the critical role of storage innovation in lowering carbon intensity and facilitating renewable energy integration. Energy storage innovation also reduces EAR, although the effect is weaker and only marginally significant, reflecting technology diffusion lags and high capital costs. Economic growth and urbanization significantly mitigate both environmental and affordability risks, whereas environmental taxes improve environmental outcomes but have no significant effect on affordability. These findings demonstrate that energy storage innovation delivers stronger environmental than affordability benefits in the short run, highlighting the need for complementary financial and regulatory measures to accelerate technology diffusion. Overall, the study provides new empirical evidence on the dual role of energy storage innovation in supporting sustainable energy transitions and offers important policy implications for the European Green Deal and the achievement of SDGs 7, 9, 12, and 13.
ABSTRACT In line with the Paris Agreement and the IMO's decarbonization goals, the shipping industry has begun to focus more intensively on adopting alternative fuels to reduce emissions. Among these, hydrogen has attracted considerable attention, with liquid hydrogen (LH 2 ) offering advantages in energy density and storage volume over compressed gas. However, the use of LH 2 in maritime applications introduces specific technical and regulatory challenges. This paper reviews the current state of LH 2 storage tank design for maritime vessels, focusing on hazards, tank geometries, insulation methods, and material requirements. A comparison with LNG is presented to highlight the distinct properties of hydrogen that influence containment design. The review also examines the evolving regulatory framework, including interim IMO guidelines, and discusses recent demonstration projects such as Suiso Frontier, MF Hydra, ZERO‐V, and HyShip. Attention is given to insulation strategies and material compatibility under cryogenic and marine conditions, as these remain central to safe and efficient operation. By consolidating findings from both research and practice, this paper provides an overview of the progress achieved so far and identifies areas where further work is required to support the safe integration of LH 2 into maritime transport.
ABSTRACT Reliable electricity access for isolated communities remains a global challenge, with approximately 760 million people lacking grid connectivity. This paper addresses this problem by proposing a hierarchical energy management framework for community‐owned collaborative microgrids. The framework integrates a centralized fuzzy logic energy management system at each individual microgrid level with a decentralized three‐agent coordination layer at the collaborative network level, managed by a microgrid agent, a collaborative microgrid agent, and a market agent. The three agents work together to enable autonomous energy sharing among community households, governed by a criticality‐weighted incentive mechanism that aligns individual economic motivations with collective network stability. This work makes three distinct contributions beyond prior literature: (i) the first hierarchical dual‐layer framework combining local fuzzy logic control with multiagent collaborative coordination validated on FPGA‐based real‐time hardware; (ii) a criticality‐adjusted point‐based remuneration model that dynamically rewards energy contributions according to network stress levels, achieving an incentive gradient between normal and critical conditions; and (iii) real‐time validation on an OP1400 test bench with OP4150 FPGA‐based digital simulator under three representative 48‐h operational scenarios. All three microgrids maintained battery state of charge within the prescribed 20%–80% bounds throughout all simulation periods; intermicrogrid power transfers with 92% redistribution efficiency were recorded under surplus conditions; and the priority‐based criticality protocol successfully managed energy deficits without service interruption to high‐priority agents. The framework demonstrates practical deployability on low‐cost embedded hardware, communicable over standard protocols, and governable through a community cooperative structure.
Hybrid nanocomposites that integrate conducting polymers, metal oxides, and carbon frameworks offer a promising strategy for high-performance supercapacitor electrodes. In this work, reduced graphene oxide-supported polyaniline/metal oxide (ZnO, Fe2O3, and ZnFe2O4) nanocomposites were prepared and systematically investigated. The surface morphology, chemical composition, and structural and optical properties of the synthesized composites were systematically investigated using FE-SEM/EDX, AFM, UV-vis spectroscopy, and FTIR spectroscopy. Electrochemical performance was evaluated by cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, revealing typical pseudocapacitive behavior arising from synergistic faradaic contributions of PANI and metal oxides. Among the electrodes studied, rGO-supported PANI/ZnFe2O4 composite exhibited the best performance, delivering a competitive gravimetric specific capacitance of 294.13 F g-1, an energy density of 163.5 Wh kg-1, and a power density of 3658.5 W kg-1, along with a capacitance retention of about 81% after 2000 cycles at a scan rate of 50 mV/s. The superior performance is attributed to the combined effects of improved conductivity from rGO, enhanced redox activity from the bimetal oxide, and reduced charge-transfer resistance, as confirmed by impedance analysis. These results demonstrate the combined interaction among rGO, PANI, and metal oxide nanoparticles, highlighting rGO-supported PANI/metal oxide composites as a highly promising platform for the development of high-performance supercapacitor electrodes.
