Sport managers have expressed the concern that the largest threat to fan safety emanates from alcohol overuse. A Turnkey Sports & Entertainment ( 2009) study asked 1,100 senior sport executives in the United States to rank various threats to fan safety. Alcohol abuse by unruly fans was listed by 62% of respondents, easily outpacing the next highest response of terrorism ( 18.73%). Previous studies have also identified an increase in violence and criminal activity relating to alcohol consumption at sporting events ( Erickson et al., 2011; Menaker & Chaney, 2014). Intoxicated fans have been the source of numerous documented tort claims against vendors and facility owners ( Bearman, 1983; Verni, 2006). Despite the known tort liability risk, administrators continue to make decisions without real evidence due to a lack of literature on alcohol policies at sporting events ( Oster-Aaland & Neighbors, 2007). This paper will document the problems associated with alcohol consumption at sporting events, review current alcohol policies and barriers to the implementation of stricter policies, and conclude with research-based suggestions for best practices in stadium alcohol management relative to: policy and training, sales and marketing, tailgating, and detection and enforcement.
The current study analyzed the sport commitment and purchase intentions of club level intercollegiate boxers and coaches. Participants at United States Intercollegiate Boxing Association ( USIBA) member institutions ( N = 155) completed an online survey answering questions regarding their sport commitment and future equipment purchase intentions. Multivariate analysis discovered significant sport commitment differences among boxers and coaches, Wilk's Lambda =.838, F ( 7, 125) = 3.46, p <.05; with coaches being slightly more committed ( M = 4.56, SD =.56) and personally invested than their boxing counterparts ( M = 4.56, SD =.52). For the second research question, an analysis of covariance ( using sport commitment as the covariate) was conducted to analyze potential differences across coaches and boxers on equipment purchase intentions. No significant differences among boxers and coaches were found, F ( 1, 92) = .400, p = .529. Discussion within the manuscript includes academic implications and pragmatic recommendations.
Since fitness centers rely heavily on the physical environment of their service, an understanding of the impact of the physical environment on the participants is vitally important. Despite the importance of the servicescape within the fitness center, no conceptual or empirical research has been attempted that might conceptualize and measure the servicescape in a fitness center. The purpose of this study is to gain a better understanding of what elements affect consumers' perceptions of the servicescape within the participants in fitness centers. After conducting an item analysis and an exploratory factor analysis. An eight-factor solution emerged and was found to be statistically and conceptually sound. The eight factors are as follows: (a) accessibility, (b) facility layout, (c) facility design, (d) equipment condition, (e) ambience, (f) facility system, (g) signage, and (h) social factor. The results were positive in that the new scales that were designed to measure important factors that comprising servicescape for fitness center appeared to possess sufficient reliability and validity to encourage their further testing in other fitness centers.
Collegiate recreational sports facilitate critical achievement-oriented activities that contribute to student development on college campuses. Achievement goal theory serves as a framework for understanding the motivation that guides one's behavior towards desired achievement-related outcomes (LeUnes, 2008). The 3x2 achievement goal model postulates six distinct goals (task-approach, task-avoidance, self-approach, self-avoidance, other-approach, other-avoidance; Elliot, Murayama, & Pekrun, 2011). As achievement goals have been associated with both positive and negative outcomes of sport (Gucciardi, Mahoney, Jalleh, Donovan, & Parkes, 2012; Kavussanu, White, Jowett, & England, 2011), further investigation through a more precise measure of achievement goals is warranted. Therefore, the current study sought to examine the relationships between achievement goals and perceived benefits of recreational sport participation, using the 3x2 model. A questionnaire was administered to 907 recreational sport participants at a post-secondary institution in the United States. Using structural equation modeling, the researchers found the task-approach goal to have a positive, significant relationship with perceived benefits of recreational sport participation (i.e., social, intellectual, fitness). Conversely, all other achievement goals indicated a non-significant relationship with perceived benefits. The findings demonstrate the utility of the 3x2 achievement goal model in recreational sport and help inform intentional programming and staff practices to enhance student development.
The purpose of this research is to investigate the quality of the Leader-Member Exchange and the relationship with Organizational Commitment, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Psychological Empowerment and Job Satisfaction of section leaders and team leaders, in summer children's camps in Greece. The high quality leadership of section and team leader encourages and supports the development of these dependent variables that play a particularly important role in organizational effectiveness camps. The two distinct samples were 669 team leaders and 148 section leaders from all summer children's camps in northern Greece. The participants completed the questionnaire of Leader-Member Exchange, Organizational Commitment, Psychological Empowerment, Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. The results show the positive relationship with all the above means for all leaders and furthermore, section leaders have higher quality leadership than team leaders with moderate quality leadership. Summary, the members of the camps have modestly Organizational Commitment and Organizational Citizenship Behavior, and highly Psychological Empowerment and Job Satisfaction as a result of its quality leadership.
The purpose is to develop a model of consumer behavior in international sport tourism that examines both pre-and post-consumption factors in international sport tourism. A secondary purpose is to address international visitation by introducing national culture as an important component of the model. The proposed model suggests that certain cultural characteristics influence an international sport tourist and these cultural characteristics impact both motivation and travel constraints. Motivation also has a direct relationship to travel constraints. Both motivation and travel constraints influence the tourist's image of both the destination and the sporting event. Finally, trip quality leads to satisfaction, which mediates the relationship with intent to return. Discussion follows with application to understanding the purchase decision making process drawn from the literature in sport tourism, consumer behavior, cross cultural studies and information processing theory.
The primary purpose of the study was to analyze the sense of social responsibility of sports clubs in the case of the "First Step with Anadolu Efes Basketball Schools" social responsibility project of Anadolu Efes Sports Club. The secondary purpose was to analyze the process of the project and to determine its contributions/effects. The method used in this study was qualitative in nature and was patterned as a case. Research sample was composed of a manager responsible for CSR activities in Anadolu Efes Sports Club. Data was collected by interview and documents analysis methods. Inductive data analysis was used for data analysis and data was transferred into NVIVO 10 software. When this research is taken into consideration with the scope of the activities of Anadolu Efes Sports Club, it indicates that volunteering and feeling responsible are the starting points for conducting corporate social responsibility projects in sport. The study was designed as a case study therefore data was obtained from a single sample and the documents of this sample. Although the variations of data provided the limitation of the study in this sense must be eliminated by examining other examples in further studies. It is hoped that when CSR studies conducted by sport clubs increase, the relevant limitation would disappear.
Examining Korean American consumers' shopping orientation with demographic variables is a critical step toward identifying and understanding the distinctive characteristics of their consumer decision-making styles (CDMS). A principal components analysis was applied to identify how the consumer styles inventory (CSI) can be generalized to the case of Korean American consumers making purchases in the sport product category of golf clubs. Of the surveys collected through purposive sampling techniques, 36 completed responses were usable. The analysis clearly identified six out of the eight original CSI factors; these six were identified and found to be optimal for adequately representing characteristics of Korean American consumers: (1) Perfectionistic/High-Quality Consciousness; (2) Brand Consciousness/Price Equals Quality; (3) Confusion by Overchoice; (4) Novelty/High-Tech Consciousness; (5) Recreational/Hedonic Consciousness; and (6) Habit/Brand Loyalty. Novelty/High-Tech Consciousness was newly captured due to the innovative features of modern golf clubs. Two other factors from the original CSI, Price Consciousness/Value for the Money and Impulsiveness/Carelessness, were found to be unreliable. This six-factor model was derived from 28 of the original 39 items of the CSI scale; the 28-item scale was thus considered more parsimonious and stable for use with Korean American consumers.
Expectations of consumers are increasing with each passing day with the development and the change of market dynamics. In return, businesses / organizations are trying to perceive the expectations by constantly staying up to date. This development can be seen very clearly in the field of sports marketing. Because it can be said that the expectations of the sports consumers have not been met over time, they have changed the consumption direction. Therefore, this research was structured by approaching the factors in the integrated structuring and management of sports consumption, including all dimensions of sports management and sports marketing. Within this scope, quality perception for psychological commitment, identification levels and licensed products playing an effective role in the consumptions of sports consumers was evaluated in this study. Research data were collected from the audiences of an international tennis tournament which was held in Singapore and has international prestige and value. In the research, it was aimed to investigate the effects of supporters' psychological commitment, identification levels and quality perception on purchase intention. The obtained data set was analyzed with statistical methods. Reliability and validity analyzes were carried out according to the envisaged models and hypotheses. In this context, regression analysis was used to test the effect of psychological commitment, identification and quality perception on purchase intention. Significant results have been achieved by evaluating the effect of psychological commitment, identification levels and quality perception on purchase intention forming the theoretical structure of the research. According to the findings obtained in the study, it was concluded that beliefs factor from psychological commitment dimensions, partizanship from identification dimensions, and quality perception that gathered in one dimension affected the purchase intention.
Sporting event websites allow for commercial displays to be formed that affect the behavior of fans and visitors to the site and depending on the size of the event, small or medium; it may become your only source of commercial information. This paper studies how an average sporting event sponsor has influences on a web visitor. It proposes a model measuring the buying intention and attitude towards the event and sponsor based on image transmission. Through a structural equation modeling it is determined that the website influences the event and image transmission but not on purchase intent. We conclude that certain strategies be proposed in order to improve the process of marketing the event and sponsors.
With the pervasive use of sports celebrities in advertising as well as the fierce competition among luxury brands, finding the appropriate celebrity endorser is a crucial matter for many brands. This study contributes to the sports celebrity endorsement research stream, being one of the first to focus on the high-value yet underexplored Chinese luxury consumer market. Using survey data from 327 respondents, this study investigates the relationship between the attractiveness and credibility (that is, trustworthiness and expertise) of sports celebrities as endorsers of luxury products and purchase intentions and decisions of Chinese consumers. The analysis involved descriptive and non-parametric (Spearman correlation) statistics to determine the relationships' strength. The results provide insights regarding Chinese luxury consumers' characteristics and attitudes and empirically confirm a strong, positive and statistically significant association between credibility and attractiveness of sports celebrity endorsers and purchasing behavior. In addition, the knowledge produced regarding Chinese luxury consumer characteristics and attitudes can also be extended to include marketing promotion and luxury brand endorsements by non-sports endorsers.
The paper took the Nanhaizi Country Park and the Dongba Country Park as samples to study recreationists' preferences. First, we selected 24 recreational indicators and divided them into 9 categories according to their properties, then, these indicators were used to do a random survey of 411 recreationists to determine their recreation preferences. Factor Analysis was conducted on the data by SPSS 19.0, the results showed that main recreation preference activities of people were traditional outdoor sports, group activities and relaxation activities, these activities were the greatest common factors which explained 30.918% variance, therefore, recreation projects such as fitness activities and group activities can be designed in country parks; as the common factor 4 and common factor 5, sightseeing and photography as well as activities enabling people close to nature belonged to the lowest preference activities, which explained 9.023% and 8.397% variance respectively. According to results of recreation characteristics, recreation motivations and recreation preferences, country parks should develop recreation items with their own characteristics. The study can provide some references for planning and management of country parks, improvement of recreational space quality and tourism study.
Within sport management research, the use of performance-enhancing drugs, or activities known as doping, has predominantly been viewed from a preemptive perspective or from the viewpoint of the athletes themselves. Consequently, there appears to be a lack of attention on the auxiliary effects of the overarching sporting domain or the implications of doping by athletes on the fans who follow them. Accordingly, this composition reviews the literature on a prominent theory that may be relevant to this issue, that being: system justification theory. This paper also highlights and briefly examines how social identity theory may play a role in this relationship. In doing so, the current review attempts to both propound potential factors implicated within the effects of athlete doping on sports fans as well as differentiate normative tendencies (i.e., status quo biases) in the various sports domains. In closing, this review calls for and also suggests possible directions for future research on doping in linking these underlying psychological theories to the expansive field of sport management in fan behavior research.
Tourism industry is considered as one of the largest and the most diverse industries in the world. In order Prioritizing Integrated Marketing Communication tools in sport tourism in Iran, the opinions of 44 sports marketing experts were collected through researcher-made questionnaires. Experts confirmed the validity (formal, content) of the questionnaire and its reliability was confirmed due to the inconsistency ratio of questionnaires that was less than (0.1). AHP method and Expert Choic11 software were used for data analysis. According to the findings, to pay Awareness based on the ACCA model, advertising and public relations were the first priority. To create a comprehension, sales promotion and to create Conviction, sales promotion, personal selling and direct marketing and create action, personal selling and direct marketing gained the most importance.
Terrorism has been one of major theoretical and teaching themes of sport security management. Since the tragic event of 1972 Munich Olympic to the 9/11 tragedy (in the United States of America) terrorism has galvanised fears among many parties. Mega sport events have more terrorist threats than regional and localised sport events because they carry a significant economic, political, social and symbolic importance and attract global media. Consequently, the security budget for mega sport events has been on the increase for the past decades. In 1992 Olympic Games, the security budget figured US $ 66 million and it reached US $ 2.2 billion in 2004 Sydney Olympic and it is most likely that it will be much higher for Olympic Games 2016 in Rio de Janeiro. Event organisers are trying to reduce the impacts of terrorism by spending more money on security. But then arrive the important questions" what are the impacts of terrorist acts in sport mega events and what are the actions have been taken by event organisers to ensure security against the threats of terrorist acts in mega sport events?" Many social impacts can be identified of terror in sport events. These include limiting human rights and reduced recreational time. Event organisers have used many strategies to reduce the treats of terrorist such as introducing new technological equipment, establish new polices and legislations.
The purpose of the present study was to examine associations between family, neighborhood and school social capital with psychological distress among Lithuanian adolescents 14-18 years of age. Participants were 1863 high-school students (51.4% females), aged 14-18 years in the 2015/2016 school year. Psychological distress was dependent, while social capital domains independent variables. Logistic regression was used to examine the associations of family, neighborhood and school social capital on the risk of high psychological distress. Psychological distress was measured by the Kessler-6 scale. Adjusting for gender, body mass index, self-perceived socioeconomic status, self-rated health and physical activity, high family social capital (OR 0.37; 95% CI 0.27 to 0.50), high neighborhood trust (OR 0.49; 95% CI 0.39 to 0.63), high vertical school trust (OR 0.67; 95% CI 0.52 to 0.88), high horizontal school trust (OR 0.76; 95% CI 0.58 to 1.00) and reciprocity at school (OR 0.56; 95% CI 0.43 to 0.74) was each associated with lower odds of psychological distress. When all independent variables were entered simultaneously, high family social capital, high neighborhood trust, high vertical school trust and reciprocity at school remained associated with lower odds of psychological distress. Since family, neighborhood and school social capital were inversely associated with psychological distress, strategies and policies that improve mutual support between the community and children must be implemented within the system.
Peer motivational climate (task-involved and ego-involved) is often examined within youth sport contexts. This research examines this concept in a collegiate intramural sport setting and analyzes how it is affected by participants' task- and ego-goal orientations in addition to several demographic and participation level variables. Empirical evidence supporting whether or not goal orientations can predict similar motivational climates, a component of achievement goal theory, was sought out in a collegiate recreational sport setting. Immediately following their participation in an intramural sport, students at a Canadian university (N = 315) completed a questionnaire that measured achievement goal orientations and peer motivational climates. MANOVAs revealed significant differences between three levels (high, medium, and low) of task-orientation on task-involved climate and ego-orientation on ego-involved climate in addition to both their subscales. Gender was the only demographic variable that showed a significant effect when ego-involvement was the dependent variable. These results support the relationship between achievement goal orientations and similar motivational climates in collegiate intramural sports but do point towards a potential need for a more adult oriented measurement of peer motivational climate.
The marathon on Fruska Gora is a two day sports-tourist event that has been taking place for 37 years annually in national park near Novi Sad, Serbia. In the year when the study was conducted, 10177 participants have been registered. From this basic set, a sample of 1192 examinees has been extracted ( 604 male and 588 female), age between 17 and 78 years. The aim was to quantify the motives significant for the participation in this event, as well as to evaluate certain aspects of the event quality based on the evaluation of the participants. Research shows that entertainment, pastime, relaxation, forgetting of everyday concerns and the need for good mood are the strongest motives. The significance of health as a motive increases with age. Factor analysis which was applied to the quality items resulted in a stable two-component structure. The greatest influences on the first component ( named Self Experience of Development Resources) were the items: convenience of the destination for active tourism, contribution of the events to the development of tourism and natural environment. The second component ( Tangible Indicators) was defined by: quality of the accompanying contents, quality of transportation, tidiness of the tracks and media promotion.
A primary objective of United States' higher education institutions is the production of well-balanced citizens. Aside from awarded degrees, other primary offerings include leisure opportunities, from campus recreation programs. Campus recreation through intramural sport programs offers students an opportunity to participate in sport and physical fitness activities on campus with and against other collegiate students. Recognizing the continuous increase in collegiate enrollment of international students, many of them are challenged by the various barriers they face in their collegiate experience in regard to education, social relationships, cultural and economic differences, and ethnic discrimination. The current study examines the relationship between leisure constraints ( intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural) and participation in intramural sport programs among 198 international students. Analyses indicate that structural constraints were the highest leisure constraint in intramural sport programs among international students. Leisure constraints in intramural sport programs were also observed by the participants based on past participation experience, sex and age. As professionals seek to increase awareness of recreation and intramural sport participation rates among international students, the current study provides insight into strategic options and marketing opportunities that can be enveloped to limit the leisure constraints that influence international students' participation.
