The aim of this study was to examine deviations between the left and right leg in dynamic balance in preschool children aged 3-6, and to investigate potential differences by age and sex. A total of 250 preschool children (144 girls, 106 boys) from four European cities (Rijeka, Zagreb, Ljubljana, Koper) participated. Dynamic balance was assessed using the standard Drift protocol with the OptoJump system (Microgate, Bolzano, Italy), which, with photocells placed on two 1-metre parallel bars, allows quantitative measurement of lateral asymmetry through the total deviation area between the left and right leg. Descriptive statistics summarised the basic characteristics of the data. Inferential analyses included regression analysis to examine relationships between variables and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with LSD post hoc tests to evaluate differences between groups. The results indicated that deviations between the left and right leg were present across all age groups, but decreased with age by approximately 0.21 standard deviations, suggesting a gradual stabilisation of balance development. The most substantial developmental improvement was observed between ages three and five (F = 2.74, p = 0.03, post hoc p = 0.00). Differences between boys and girls were not statistically significant, while high standard deviations (0.12-0.18) reflected pronounced individual variability among children.These findings highlight the importance of adapting teaching approaches to each child and underscore the necessity of incorporating motor tasks that promote the use of both the left and right leg, contributing to optimal development of dynamic balance and motor skills during the preschool years.
Objective: This theoretical study analyzes the mechanical advantage of a simplified lever model of the upper arm–forearm system during arm extension in a direct punch in boxing, serving as a didactic tool for understanding basic biomechanical principles. Methods: A quasistatic approach based on classical mechanics was used to derive the model. For the analytical derivation, approximately equal segment lengths were assumed, while friction, air resistance, and multi-joint kinetic chain effects were neglected. Results: An analytical expression for mechanical advantage was derived, with a transition angle between the speed lever phase () and force lever phase (). Sensitivity analysis shows variation of by 10–20% with a change in angle or a change in segment length ratio. Discussion: The model illustrates essential energy trade-offs: high-velocity generation in the early phase (larger ) and significant force amplification in the late phase (smaller ). The study is limited to pedagogical purposes and abstracts the complexities of the full kinetic chain (trunk and legs). Conclusion: The analysis provides valuable pedagogical insight into the mechanical principles of the direct punch, offering a theoretical basis for future kinematic validation and more complex multi-body simulations.
Doping remains one of the most important problems in sports, but legal issues related to anti-doping are relatively understudied in this context. This study aimed to evaluate the reliability and validity of a newly designed questionnaire aimed at evaluating antidoping legal knowledge among sport officials.The participants included 211 sport officers (coaches, medical professionals, nutritionists; 41.7±7. years of age, 71 females) from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, who were tested on a newly designed questionnaire on knowledge of legal anti-doping regulations for sport officials (Q-LADR-O). Additionally, data on sociodemographic characteristics, sport-related factors, and doping-related factors were collected. In the first phase, a subsample of 56 participants was tested and retested on the Q-LADR-O in the time frame of 7--10 days to evaluate the reliability of the tool.Among the 20 original questionnaire items, 18 had appropriate test-retest reliability (Cohen’s kappa > 0.61, absolute agreement > 80%). Factor analysis identified two distinct latent structures reflecting (i) rights and obligation under the anti-doping code and (ii) anti-doping testing and legislation. The validity of the Q-LADR-O was confirmed by significant differences between medical staff and coaches/nutritionists (6.71 ±1.79 and 4.21 ± 1.2 for medical staff and coaches/nutritionists, respectively, t test = 8.71, p < 0.01) and a significant correlation between the Q-LADR-O and sport-officiating level (Spearman’s R = 0.21, p < 0.05) and between the Q-LADR-O and the number of doping tests of athletes officiated (Spearman’s R = 0.55, p < 0.05).Considering its proper reliability and validity, Q-LADR-O can contribute to more effective anti-doping education, primarily by reducing unintentional rule violations. Further intervention studies are warranted.
The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effects of different neuromuscular warm-up protocols on soccer players' anaerobic power, isokinetic strength, vertical jump, agility, sprint, and kicking velocity performance. Thirty-two amateur soccer players (mean: 21.28±1.63 yıl; 175.62±5.95 cm; 71.14±8.87 kg) participated in the study and were randomly assigned to three groups after pre-tests: the FIFA 11+ warm-up protocol group (FWPG, n=11), the HarmoKnee warm-up protocol group (HWPG, n=10), and the Dynamic warm-up protocol group (DWPG, n=11). Participants performed the warm-up protocol of their assigned group, followed by post-tests. Repeated measures two-way ANOVA was applied to determine the effect of warm-up methods on performance. Significant changes were found in the soccer players' average power (FWPG, HWPG, DWPG), vertical jump (FWPG, HWPG, DWPG), agility (FWPG), and kicking velocity performance (FWPG, HWPG) over time (p<0.05). Peak power, isokinetic strength, and 20 m sprint performance did not show significant differences over time (p>0.05). No significant difference was found between warm-up groups (p>0.05). The study results indicate that different neuromuscular warm-up methods improve certain performance parameters (average power, vertical jump, agility, and kicking speed) in soccer players. FIFA 11+ was observed to positively affect more performance parameters compared to HarmoKnee and dynamic warm-up.
Body composition may play a crucial role in determining the physical fitness components essential for performance in athletes. This study aims to examine the relationship between body composition, aerobic capacity, trunk muscle endurance, and muscle strength in young male basketball players. Body composition was assessed using body mass index (BMI), body fat percentage, and skeletal muscle mass. Aerobic capacity was evaluated based on maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), estimated through the Multi-Stage 20 m Shuttle Run Test. Trunk muscle endurance was assessed using the Biering-Sorensen Test for extensor muscles and the Kraus-Weber Test for flexor muscles, while peripheral muscle strength was measured with a hand dynamometer. Twenty-nine young male basketball players (mean age: 15.62 +/- 0.62 years; mean BMI: 19.88 +/- 2.96 kg/m(2)) participated in this study. A significant negative correlation was observed between body fat percentage and VO2max (r=-0.399, p=0.032), trunk extensor endurance (r=-0.534, p=0.03), and trunk flexor endurance (r=-0.514, p=0.04). Conversely, skeletal muscle mass demonstrated a significant positive correlation with VO2max (r=0.394, p=0.035), trunk extensor endurance (r=0.481, p=0.008), and trunk flexor endurance (r=0.425, p=0.022). No statistically significant relationships were found between peripheral muscle strength and body fat or skeletal muscle mass (p>0.05). Higher body fat is associated with reduced aerobic capacity and trunk muscle endurance, while greater skeletal muscle mass positively influences these parameters in young male basketball players. Implementing targeted strategies to reduce body fat and enhance skeletal muscle mass through a multidisciplinary approach, including physiotherapy interventions, may be beneficial for optimizing physical fitness in this population.
Shooting accuracy is a decisive offensive skill in football, yet traditional training methods often lack the tactical realism and precision required for consistent finishing performance. To address this gap, the 6-Week Target Tactics Training Program (TTTP) was designed to integrate progressive, target-based, and bilateral shooting drills that simulate realistic match conditions. This study examined the effectiveness of TTTP in improving shooting accuracy among collegiate football players. A quasi-experimental design was employed involving 24 participants assigned to an experimental group (n = 12) and a control group (n = 12). The experimental group completed a six-week TTTP intervention, while the control group continued with conventional football training. Shooting accuracy was measured using the Loughborough Soccer Shooting Test (LSST) during pre-test and post-test phases. Independent and paired t-tests were used to assess performance differences within and between groups. Both groups showed significant improvement after six weeks of training; however, the experimental group exhibited substantially greater gains compared to the control group, confirming the effectiveness of TTTP in enhancing shooting accuracy. The structured, bilateral, and situational design of TTTP likely contributed to improved neuromuscular control, ball-striking consistency, and perceptual decision-making under simulated competitive conditions. The findings highlight TTTP as a practical and scalable intervention for collegiate football programs seeking to improve finishing efficiency. Incorporating accuracy-focused, game-representative drills into training cycles may enhance scoring opportunities and technical execution beyond conventional practice alone.
This study aimed to examine the influence of different types of feedback and gender on the motor learning process of a complex motor skill. Participants (N male = 113, age 20.95±1.19; N female = 103, age 20.55±0.94) were divided into three experimental groups based on feedback type (digital, immediate, and delayed) and were assessed across five measurement points while learning the gymnastics skill Cartwheel. A three-way mixed-model ANOVA revealed a strong main effect of Measurement factor (ηp2= 0.318; p < 0.001), demonstrating significant skill acquisition over time, while the effect of Feedback Type factor was marginally non-significant (ηp2 = 0.056; p = 0.051), with the digital feedback group demonstrating moderately higher performance over immediate and delayed feedback groups. The main effect of Gender was not significant (ηp2 = 0.027; p = 0.09). However, descriptively, female participants showed a trend toward more rapid and stable performance improvement, whereas males exhibited greater intra-group variability and more pronounced performance gains in later learning phases. These findings suggest that digital feedback may be an effective tool for supporting complex motor learning, particularly in earlier stages, while gender alone does not significantly determine performance differences. The results provide practical guidelines for coaches and practitioners regarding the implementation of digital technologies in education and training, with recommendations for future research to explore combinations of different feedback modalities and longitudinal follow-ups.
The purpose of the study is to examine the relationships between physical activity levels and body composition in pre-adolescent children aged 11–12 years. This cross-sectional study sampled 210 male students (mean age 11.2 ± 0.79 years) from two schools located in Muscat governorate, Oman. Physical activity at four intensity levels was measured using the ActiGraph GT3X accelerometer, while body composition including percent body fat and Index of Hypokinesia was assessed via Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis using the InBody 270 analyzer. The study found participants had a mean BMI of 20.4 kg/m², near the overweight threshold, and a mean body fat percentage (PBF) of 22.6%, exceeding healthy ranges, especially for boys. The Index of Hypokinesia (IH) averaged 1.2, indicating higher fat mass relative to body size. Pearson correlation showed vigorous physical activity (VPA) was significantly negatively correlated with PBF (r = -0.275, p < 0.01) and IH (r = -0.387, p < 0.01), while sedentary behavior positively correlated with IH (r = 0.223, p < 0.01). Multiple regression analysis revealed that moderate and vigorous physical activity significantly predicted PBF and IH, explaining 25.2% and 27.2% of the variance, respectively. Sedentary and light activities were not significant predictors. This study confirms that higher moderate and vigorous physical activity levels are linked to lower body fat and reduced hypokinesia in pre-adolescent children, while sedentary and light activities showed minimal impact. Promoting vigorous activity is essential for healthy development, with future research needed to confirm these findings across broader populations.
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries should be considered through a neurocognitive perspective, not only as a neuromuscular or biomechanical issue, so that neurocognitive testing could be considered in athletes’ assessments. The present scoping review aims to summarize and map a range of studies about cognitive functioning in the injury likelihood of ACL injuries among athletes, providing a starting framework of the tests and cognitive domains that are usually assessed. Six databases were searched between the 28 January 2024 to 8 February 2024. Studies were included when containing participants who participated in any sport and in which cognitive assessments were investigated. Author and year, characteristics of participants, objectives, measured variables and results were extracted. A total of 9 articles were scoped. The majority of studies are based on mixed assessment (cognitive and biomechanical measures) (n=7) using inhibitory control and working memory as the main cognitive domains (n=5 and n=4, respectively). To assess these domains, the most common tests used are: Stroop test (inhibitory control) and Digit Span Test (working memory). We have summarized and mapped 9 studies about neurocognitive functioning in the injury risk of ACL injuries in athletes. The most common cognitive domains are inhibitory control and working memory and the most used tests are Stroop test and Digit Span Test for the domains mentioned respectively. This could represent valuable information for physiotherapists, rehab fitness coaches, and strength and conditioning coaches to begin to consider introducing them into their daily practice.
This study aimed to assess the nutritional status, macronutrient and micronutrient intake, and adequacy of Turkish elite young female road cyclists during the pre-season camp period. Twenty-five elite national team cyclists (mean age 16.2 ± 0.6 years) participated. Dietary intake was assessed via face-to-face interviews conducted by experienced dietitians using a 24-hour dietary recall. Anthropometric measurements included body mass, height, body fat (BF, kg and %), and fat-free mass (FFM, kg and %). Micronutrient intake was compared with recommended dietary allowances (RDA), and correlations between body composition and nutrient intake were analyzed. Daily macronutrient distribution was 50.2 ± 8.2% of total energy intake (TEI) from carbohydrates, 30.6 ± 6.9% from fat, and 19.2 ± 3.0% from protein. Vitamin intake exceeded RDA for most vitamins, except for folate (80.2% of RDA). Mineral intake was below recommendations for potassium (65.9%), calcium (60.6%), and iron (84.6%). The findings indicate that Turkish elite young female cyclists exhibit an unbalanced dietary pattern during the pre-season, characterized by suboptimal carbohydrate intake and potential risks of Low Energy Availability (LEA). Micronutrient deficiencies in calcium, potassium, iron, and folate were also observed. These results emphasize the urgent need for structured nutritional monitoring and education to mitigate the risks of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) and support long-term athletic development.
https://doi.org/10.52165/kinsi.32.1.165-176
There has been a concerning increase in obesity among schoolgirls and schoolboys in the Republic of Croatia, with a negative trend recorded in numerous studies. The aim of this research was to conduct a longitudinal study over a period of 10 years in the continental part of Croatia to obtain results on the state of obesity among school-aged children. Anthropometric measurements were conducted on a sample of 1,558 primary school children (F=708; M=850) in Ivani & cacute; Grad (Continental Croatia). The students were aged between 11 and 15 years, and measurements included body weight, height, BMI (Body Mass Index), and subcutaneous fat tissue. The study was conducted over the period from 2013 to 2023. We found that a higher percentage of male students were obese (65.34%) compared to female students (34.65%). Similarly, a greater proportion of overweight students with excessive body weight were male (58.15%) compared to female students (41.85%), with a Chi-squared test result of p=0.054p. A statistically significant difference was observed among grade levels for Body Mass Index (BMI), with the highest rates of obesity (8.04%) and overweight status (16.82%) occurring among older students, while the highest number of underweight students was found in the fifth grade (40.57%) (p<0.001). The results for subcutaneous fat tissue indicated that fifth-grade students had an average body fat percentage of 29.34%, the highest across all grades analyzed (p<0.001). This research further confirmed the high levels of obesity among male and female students in the continental part of Croatia. Only education from preschool age, dietary changes, and continuous health-oriented physical activity, in collaboration with various preventive programs, can serve as a foundation to reverse these negative trends.
This study examines the sustained engagement of college students in bodybuilding, focusing on commitment, adherence, and behavioral persistence in fitness practices. Employing a longitudinal comparative correlational research design, the study analyzed participation across key dimensions: frequency, duration, intensity, commitment, and engagement while assessing external motivators, including social support, accessibility, and institutional resources. Findings indicate high participation levels, with duration ranking highest and intensity requiring improvement. Demographic analysis revealed no significant differences across sex, age, or academic standing, suggesting that bodybuilding is accessible to diverse student populations. Regression analysis identified commitment, accessibility, and peer support as primary predictors of sustained engagement, emphasizing the importance of structured fitness environments and motivational reinforcements. The study highlights the importance of institutional interventions, including educational workshops, fitness programming, and social reinforcement strategies, in promoting long-term adherence to bodybuilding and enhancing student wellness within academic settings.
This study aimed to analyse trends in injury occurrence among athletes in Olympic team sports based on studies reporting data from established injury surveillance systems. A secondary analysis of published epidemiological data from the Olympic Games (2004–2020) was conducted using reports based on the International Olympic Committee injury surveillance system. The analysis included football, basketball, handball, volleyball, beach volleyball, water polo, and hockey. Injury incidence was expressed as the proportion of injured athletes, including time-loss injuries (≥1 day) and severe injuries, and trends were assessed using linear regression. The results indicated an overall decreasing trend in injury incidence across Olympic team sports (slope = −1.96% per Olympic cycle), although not observed statistical significance (p > 0.05). A statistically significant reduction was observed in basketball (slope = −2.89%; p = 0.01), whereas football and handball demonstrated non-significant decreasing trends. In contrast, volleyball, beach volleyball, and water polo showed non-significant increasing trends (p > 0.05). The proportion of athletes sustaining time-loss injuries decreased significantly over the study period (slope = −0.96%; p = 0.02). Contact sports demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in time-loss injuries (slope = −1.34%; p = 0.01), whereas non-contact sports showed a non-significant increasing tendency in overall injury incidence (slope = 1.74%; p = 0.09). Overall, injury trends in Olympic team sports appear heterogeneous and influenced by sport-specific characteristics, particularly the level of physical contact. These findings may support sport-specific injury prevention strategies and athlete health protection programmes. Interpretation remains limited due to methodological variability and the lack of long-term comparable data.
In September 2023, Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, hosted the WTA tournament. After initial difficulties in selecting the venue, a central tennis court was built specifically for the event on Trg Republike, the city’s main public square. The placement of this tournament on one of the most prominent squares sparked a debate about the appropriateness of integrating sporting events into the public space. Against the backdrop of discussions on the entrepreneurial transformation of cities, particularly in relation to issues of appropriation and commercialization of public space, this study takes the WTA tournament as an opportunity to reflect on the media discourse that surrounded it. It conducts a quantitative content analysis and a qualitative thematic analysis of Slovenian (print) media coverage of the event, examining whether and how the use of public space was addressed and problematized in coverage, and what contribution sports journalism made in this context. The results show that while the critical approach towards the venue was present in the overall coverage, it was absent on the sports pages. The paper concludes by emphasizing the importance of in-depth coverage to promote a nuanced understanding of the issues involved and offers some suggestions for further research.
Home care workers are frequently exposed to physical demands that may affect their physical fitness and overall health. However, this occupational group remains insufficiently researched. The aim of this study was to examine the physical fitness of home care workers and its associations with body mass index, self-perceived health, and self-perceived physical fitness. Eighty-eight employees (86.4% women) were included in this cross-sectional study. Participants completed four motor performance assessments (upper- and lower-limb flexibility, isometric handgrip strength, and standing vertical jump) and three anthropometric measurements (body height, body mass, and waist circumference), as well as a questionnaire on self-perceived health, self- perceived physical fitness, and frequency of physical activity. Waist-to-height ratio indicated moderate-to-high health risk in 56.9% of participants, while body mass index indicated overweight or obesity in 70% of participants. Body mass index was weakly negatively correlated with handgrip strength (ρₛ = –0.316; p = 0.025). Most participants rated their health and physical fitness as average; 21.6% reported never engaging in moderate-intensity and 53.8% never engaging in vigorous-intensity physical activity. The results indicate reduced lower-limb flexibility and lower-limb explosive power, while isometric handgrip strength was relatively well preserved. These findings highlight the need for targeted exercise programs and body weight management strategies that address occupational demands and include exercises to improve muscle strength, flexibility, and balance, with the aim of maintaining functional capacity and reducing the risk of musculoskeletal disorders.
A positive relationship between intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) and activation of m. transversus abdominis (TrA) is well established, enabling the non-invasive prediction of IAP from an EMG TrA signal. Since lateral abdominal force (LAF) may also be related to IAP, a new sensor device for measuring LAF was developed to assess IAP. Sixteen subjects performed two progressive isometric shoulder flexions to their maximum to induce IAP. The LAF and surface EMG of the TrA muscle were measured. Lateral abdominal force was analyzed for reliability and validity regarding the EMG TrA signal. For each individual, correlation coefficients between the EMG TrA and lateral abdominal force sensor (LAFS) signals were significant and ranged from 0.886 to 0.994. In all cases, the EMG TrA signal made a significant contribution (p < 0.001) when predicting the LAFS signal, while the linear prediction of the LAFS signal yielded a small error of estimation. The interclass correlation confirmed consistency between two repetitions. Results provide that the LAFS might estimate IAP in a simple and non-invasive way. The new device also has the potential to detect the start of the increase in IAP before the action, a principle important for lumbar spine protection
The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between ACTN3 rs1815739, IL-6 rs1800795, and PPARA rs4253778 gene polymorphisms and anaerobic test parameters among volleyball players. A total of 22 volleyball players voluntarily participated in the study. DNA isolation from buccal epithelial cell samples were performed using a PureLink DNA isolation kit, following the manufacturer's instructions. The genotyping of ACTN3 rs1815739, IL-6 rs1800795, and PPARA rs4253778 gene polymorphisms were determined using the real-time polymerase chain reaction technique. Statistical analysis of the test results was performed using the SPSS 23 software package. Homogeneity of variance was assessed with the Levene test, and normal distribution was evaluated using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The One-Way ANOVA test was applied for the analysis of all parameters, and significance was set at p < 0.05. When the data were evaluated, no statistically significant differences were observed between PPARA rs4253778 and ACTN3 rs1815739 gene polymorphisms and anaerobic performance parameters (p>0.05). Statistically significant differences were observed between the IL-6 rs1800795 gene polymorphism and anaerobic performance parameters of back strength (p> 0.05). In conclusion, in volleyball, PPARA rs4253778 and ACTN3 rs1815739 gene polymorphisms did not cause differentiation in anaerobic performance parameters. However, IL-6 gene polymorphism caused differentiation only in the back strength parameter. Additionally, the good performance of athletes with different prevalent level of genotypes in the studied performance criteria does not fully reveal which performance outcomes are influenced by the gene or genotype distributions. It is understood that further studies are needed to better determine the gene-performance relationship.
This cross-sectional study was designed to analyse the subject-specific professional competencies of Slovenian physical education teachers (PETs) according to their gender and years of teaching. The participants evaluated their professional competencies (N=40) with self-administered questionnaire on a four-level Likert scale. Factor analysis is used for the examination of the internal structure of the competencies field and MANOVA is used to determine differences in belief statements about their competencies between three groups of PETs with different gender and years of teaching. There is a discrepancy in self-efficacy to teach physical education (PE) between PETs of both genders with less years of teaching (<10y) and those with more years of teaching (>20). Teachers with less years of teaching (<10y) evaluated their own competencies higher on the factor Teaching methods (p < .001), while teachers with more years of teaching (>20y) on the factor Pedagogical and motivational strategies (p < .001). Female PETs with more years of teaching (>20y) evaluated their General didactic knowledge higher than their male counterparts (p = .019), while men evaluated their competencies higher on the factor Social aspects of sport (p = .006). Regardless of gender, however, on the factor Social aspects of sport, PETs with more years of teaching (>20y) evaluated their competencies higher than their counterparts with less years of teaching (<10y) (p = .013). The results of the survey confirm the need for the reintroduction of internships, mentoring by more experienced teachers to colleagues with less seniority, and a systematic process of continuous professional development, especially for teacher trainers.
