Many children experience challenges with learning and behavior. Educators can also face challenges in developing and implementing instructional and assessment systems to help students to improve in skills over time. To help address these issues, many schools have adopted multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS). As more schools attempt to implement MTSS practices, it is important to understand how educators apply them and what could help them more in this process. This study sought educators’ perspectives about MTSS. The research questions were: How familiar are teachers and school administrators with MTSS? What opportunities have they had for MTSS professional development? What do they see as their lingering MTSS professional development needs? For findings, participants perceived the effort devoted to MTSS-related training was insufficient. Participants desired professional learning focused on improving the quality of MTSS in their schools (e.g., research/evidence-based instruction, use of curriculum-based measurement, tiered programming). The authors share implications for practice and future research.
Efficiently identifying students with dyslexia in public schools is crucial for early intervention. Multidisciplinary collaboration for literacy screening is a valuable tool often left unused, especially with novel partnerships. Literacy and musical skills share common neurological pathways, and musical interventions have been shown to improve literacy skills. Beyond therapeutic interventions, music educators possess knowledge of students’ musical skills that is advantageous in screening students for literacy disabilities. This study utilized a descriptive research design to identify music educators’ roles in screening for reading disabilities in public schools. 92% of respondents had not screened for literacy disorders/dyslexia from within the music discipline, but the majority agreed that music educators should have a role. Their perceived familiarity with the connections between music and literacy was positively correlated with their attitude about having a role in identifying students [r(70) = .351, p = .0025]. Implications for educational leaders are highlighted, including providing literacy education for future music teachers in pre-service programs and proposed structures for multidisciplinary collaboration with music educators in literacy teams.
The current study provides an updated review of enacted dyslexia laws that includes specific implementation requirements for each state. Except Hawaii, all states and the District of Columbia now have a dyslexia law, and 41 states include a codified definition of dyslexia. Thirty-four state definitions specify that dyslexia is neurobiological in origin. There was considerable variability in key implementation requirements across states. Forty-four states mandate screening for dyslexia, and 37 states include intervention requirements. Regarding educator training, requirements for in-service training were more common than pre-service training. Given the ambiguity for implementation of dyslexia law requirements, a survey to gauge “dyslexia preparedness” was given to school psychologists in a specific state. Survey results suggested school psychologists generally perceived a lack of preparedness and insufficient training as major challenges for implementing dyslexia mandates. Implications for policy guidelines and broader school-level implementation of dyslexia mandates are discussed.
Children with specific learning disorders might experience difficulties in school tasks, leading to the development of internalizing problems (such as anxiety and depression) and school motivation reduction. Moreover, these problems might affect their motivation and executive functions. Therefore, the current study hypothesizes that internalizing problems and motivation would influence perception of their cognitive functioning in children with Developmental Dyscalculia (DD). Fifty-nine children (64.4% males; mean age: 10.98±1.54), 29 of which diagnosed with DD, were contacted and were asked to answer questionnaires about study motivation, internalizing problems (depression and anxiety), and perception of executive functioning. The ANOVA model showed that children with DD showed higher depressive and performance anxiety symptoms, higher amotivation and a worse perception of executive functioning than children with typical learning. The regression models reported that a worsened attention perception seems to be determined by the presence of depressive symptoms. Children with dyscalculia appear to suffer from a lack of motivation, a worse perception of executive function and higher depressive symptoms than children with typical development. The results suggest that teachers and parents should take care of children’s mental health, considering the psychopathological risk of children with DD, together with motivation and executive functioning impairment.
This study examined relations among learning strategies, academic motivation, and test anxiety in elementary students with or at risk for specific learning disabilities (SLD), attention‑deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), co‑occurring SLD+ADHD, and students without disabilities. Participants were 89 students in Grades 3–5 from two public schools. Groups included students with formal diagnoses and students identified as at risk for SLD and/or ADHD. Learning strategies, academic motivation, and test anxiety were assessed using the School Motivation and Learning Strategies Inventory (SMALSI). Results of this study indicated that students with SLD+ADHD demonstrated the greatest difficulties, including note‑taking strategies, lower academic motivation, and higher test anxiety compared with peers. Test anxiety in Grade 5 was associated with academic difficulties (SLD and SLD+ADHD), whereas students with ADHD showed higher test anxiety particularly in earlier grades. Across the groups, higher test anxiety was significantly associated with less effective study strategies and lower academic motivation. Findings underscore the need to address cognitive, metacognitive, and emotional factors concurrently. This study highlights the educational implication that incorporating cognitive, metacognitive, and emotional supports can enhance academic outcomes for students with or at risk for SLD and/or ADHD.
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD) students with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) are overrepresented in the school population but often receive inconsistent and culturally irrelevant instruction. This paper reports on the results of a latent content analysis of extant literature to provide four main themes that can be used to better organize, design, and implement culturally responsive instruction and research for CLD students with SLD. An exhaustive literature review and latent content analysis was conducted on the extant literature involving CLD students with SLD. Four major themes were identified from the latent content analysis: (a) the need for a broader concept of culture, (b) general adoption of a deficit-based perspective, (c) unfair and unrepresentative standards and assessments, and (d) need for increased professional development for teachers.
This study aims to examine the extent of conceptual knowledge of students with and at risk of learning disabilities on entrepreneurial business ideas in the region where they reside. Clinical interviews were utilized to collect data in this study, which aims to reveal the current situation. The business ideas discussed in the interviews were regarding cattle breeding, cheesemaking, beekeeping, goose breeding, kavılca cultivation, greenhouse cultivation, and carpetmaking. These business ideas are the livelihoods of the rural area where the students live. Semi-structured questions were administered to a total of 31 senior secondary school students, 20 of whom had learning disabilities and 11 of whom were at risk of learning disabilities. The data were subjected to content analysis and the resulting codes were presented to the reader with frequencies. It was observed that the students had more conceptual knowledge about cows and geese than bees. It was also found that their conceptual knowledge on carpetmaking was insufficient. Their conceptual knowledge on kavılca wheat and greenhouse was also found to be low.
Despite an uptick in legislative efforts to improve reading achievement, many students continue to fall below grade-level expectations. It has been widely assumed that families with higher socioeconomic status are advantaged in navigating the complex special education identification and service provision processes, specifically for language and reading disabilities. As a result of this perception, the experiences of upper SES families advocating for supports for their children have been largely ignored in the United States. This pilot study examined the experiences of 49 educated, upper SES parents who sought support for their child(ren)'s reading disabilities. Parents completed online surveys to report on their child(ren)'s identification, evaluation, and educational programming. Results indicated that few children received timely and effective interventions, despite parents expressing concerns early in their child’s development. Parents also reported that, when provided, evaluation reports and educational programming were unsatisfactory. The parent-school relationship significantly degraded throughout the referral process, with parents expressing distrust in the school's ability to meet their child(ren)'s needs. As a result, many parents resorted to expensive external supports, including independent evaluations and specialized tutoring. This process led to increased parental anxiety, financial burden, and marital discord. The study highlights the challenges faced by parents, who are widely assumed to have optimal resources for advocacy, demonstrating that substantial societal and financial capital does not guarantee effective support for their children’s reading needs. It also raises questions about school models that rely on external family support.
The last decade has seen the proliferation of thousands of online support groups, fostering new opportunities for parents of children with learning disabilities to access information, advice, and support online. This study explores the experiences of mothers of children with dyslexia, focusing on how online social support networks serve as a critical resource for these parents. This study highlights the ways in which mothers navigate the challenges of dyslexia through shared experiences, collective resilience, and advocacy efforts. The findings suggest that online platforms not only provide emotional validation and practical advice but also foster empowerment by connecting mothers to others who understand the experience of raising a child with dyslexia. These networks become vital spaces where mothers can transform their struggles into strength, gaining both the support and confidence needed to advocate for their children’s needs. This study underscores the transformative power of online communities, offering new insights into the intersection of social support, personal experience, and advocacy in the context of dyslexia.
The purpose of the current study was to examine the skill-by-treatment interaction (STI) framework to intensify reading interventions. The effects were tested with a multiple-baseline across-participants single-case experimental de-sign with a contraindicated phase. Four students in second through fourth grades were the participants for the study. All four had received a tier two reading intervention that focused on phonics but did not show sufficient growth from the intervention. The intervention was then modified based on the phase of learning and the Fuchs et al. (2017) taxonomy for intervention intensification. The contraindicated intervention led to negligible or negative effects for all four students (between-case standardized mean difference = -0.61, 95% CI = -1.24 to 0.02), but the indicated intervention led to a large effect on the reading outcome measures across the four participants (between-case standardized mean difference = 1.18, 95% CI = 0.42 to 1.95). Thus, the contraindication design showed an experimental effect for matching interventions to student skill within an STI framework.
Teachers and allied professionals change the brains of students with their instruction and interventions. Since their efforts lead to physiological changes through the brain’s natural propensity for plasticity, it is perplexing that very few educators know about the brain, or how their actions influence brain development in the children they serve. In contrast, neuroscientists understand the brain basis of learning and behavior, but this knowledge is seldom translated into educational practice, leaving many to question the pragmatic value of educational neuroscience research. In this paper, we discuss the Teaching Brain Literacy Initiative (TBLI) for developing educator understanding and use of neuroscience knowledge in the classroom. Results suggest that didactic training, illustrative case studies, and jigsaw cooperative learning groups increased practitioner reported knowledge, skills, and opinions towards difference/disability. Limitations and potential future research efforts will be presented, including ways to foster knowledge translation from science to practice.
The purpose of this literature review is to examine studies that explore critical special education teacher educators’ use of anti-racist and anti-ableist pedagogy and/or Dis/ability Critical Race Studies Theory (DisCrit) as a framework for their curriculum, teaching strategies, and/or teaching techniques. We focus particularly on teacher candidates’ (TCs’) advocacy and support of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) labeled with specific learning disabilities (SLD). As teacher educators, we recognize that BIPOC students labeled with SLD experience marginalization throughout PK-12 education as well as negative post-school outcomes. Thus, this review seeks to identify evidence-based, anti-racist and anti-ableist teaching methods that show TCs how to advocate and advance academic, social, and/or emotional progress for their students. This review delves into empirical studies within a 10-year period to explore how critical pedagogy and theory can develop TCs’ critical consciousness and encourage anti-racist and anti-ableist practices for students with SLD. The paper concludes with recommendations and resources to help teacher educators model and implement anti-racist and anti-ableist pedagogical practices in teacher education.
This article consists of critical autoethnographic counter-narrative vignettes that account for how the boundary work within the traditional Special Education and Disability Studies in Education fields can further explain the sub-field of learning disabilities and the related field of Speech and Language Impairment from an Interdisciplinary and Inter-sectional Disability Studies in Education approach. This approach will be mindful of accounting for the transforming intersectional-institutional-oppressive systems for praxis for other critical perspectives that is leading us to new lines of research that can possibly bring solutions and advance the fields. In particular with Black, Indigenous, and Youth of Col-or with and without dis/Abilities along gender as well. This is important to help the field to transcend the longstanding debates and binaries in the fields that have centered on either/or thinking, in order to embrace a re-thinking and re-feel-ing perspective that accounts for both/and perspectives through theoretical pluralism. We do this so that we can con-struct mind-and-heart-and-hand-spirit-sets that are integrative in nature as opposed to being bifurcated along theory, research, policy, and practice for the fields and for all agents for transformative system change efforts along transforming intersectional-institutional-oppressive systems in special education at large.
We use critical qualitative methods to demonstrate how ambiguities present in definitions of learning disability (LD) and processes for determining LD eligibility under IDEA result in inequitable outcomes for minoritized students. To investigate this issue, we first outline how the LD label is situated within medical and psychological understandings of disability. We illustrate the limitations of these conceptions through composite stories based on our experiences as special educators who participated in LD eligibility determination meetings in schools serving minoritized students. Guided by a conceptual framework highlighting the interplay between meso policy and context on teachers' decision making about LD, we find decisions about LD are made without consideration of the impact of students' intersecting marginalized identities. We conclude that LD eligibility determination must move away from deficit-oriented models such as the discrepancy model or RTI to one that acknowledges the interaction between the social construction of disability and race.
This study examined the feasibility and effectiveness of Remote Learning (RL) for students with learning disabilities (LD) during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the first experiment, perceptions of the appropriateness of using RL to teach students with LD during the pandemic was examined with 99 Saudi special educators. The teachers reported that their students with LD lacked motivation, engagement, and had poor learning outcomes. In the second experiment, IEPs of 33 students with LD were analyzed to compare their learning outcomes before and during the pandemic. The students with LD received fewer teaching sessions, completed fewer IEP goals, and missed more school days during the pandemic than before the pandemic. Taken together, the findings indicated that RL instruction did not meet the needs of students with LD. In the future when considering RL, school districts should provide training and technical support to teachers, IEPs should be implemented consistently, and families should be involved in the intervention process.
Over the past 25 years, substantial legal changes, research advances, and rapidly developing technology have resulted in dramatic changes in the postsecondary disability landscape. As a result, disability service professionals have seen their job duties significantly expand while serving a rapidly increasing and diversifying postsecondary population with disabilities. The current study details the relevant developments of the past 25 years, reviews literature documenting emerging challenges, and provides a case study of the system-wide approach developed by the University System of Georgia to support its disability service professionals during this period of rapid evolution. The services and supports provided by the three independent components (i.e., the Regents Centers for Learning Disorders, the Center for Inclusive Design and Innovation, and the Regents' Administrative Committee on Accessibility and Disability Services) are described. In addition, the authors describe how the components work in a collaborative way to leverage the benefits of a multidisciplinary approach. The authors close by describing how system-wide approaches or aspects of the University System of Georgia approach could be adopted in other states and settings.
The terms Language Disorder, Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), Language-based learning disabilities, Specific Learning Disorder, and Specific Learning Disability are commonly used to describe children struggling to learn at school. In this position paper, the definitions and distinctions between these terms are discussed, and key overlaps and differences described. Although often used interchangeably, Specific Learning Disorder and Specific Learning Disability are not synonymous. Based on current definitions, DLD and Specific Learning Disorder are related to Specific Learning Disability in the same way. In educational settings, children with DLD may additionally be identified using terms such as Language Impairment, Speech, Language, Communication Needs (SLCN), and others. Despite the problematic overlap in the names Specific Learning Disorder and Specific Learning Disability, one advantage of the latter term is the acknowledgment that many skills underlying academic learning are language-based, thereby capturing the disability experienced by children with language or academic learning disorders.
This paper presents the new principles and standards for Specific Learning Disability evaluations. The research informed principles and standards are the product of a yearlong, research-based collaboration between professional ambassadors from the fields of school psychology, cognitive psychology, speech and language pathology, special education, literacy, mathematics education, and medicine. These principles and standards are designed to provided professionals with a process that can be used to develop a comprehensive evaluation and written report describing: the nature of the specific learning disability; the area and levels of impairment; academic areas and personal areas of strengths; cultural and linguistic diversity of the student; and specific considerations for practitioners to develop individualized interventions designed to meet the unique academic, linguistic, social, emotional, and behavioral needs of the student.
This initial exploratory study assessed the evidence of reliability, criterion validity, and growth of scores obtained from total correct word sequences (CWS), correct word sequences per response (CWSR), and a trait-based rubric used with a curriculum-based measure of writing (CBM-W) for progress monitoring. Participants were 26 writers with or at risk for a learning disability (LD) in grades 2-3. Participants were given the CBM-W task twice weekly over 6 weeks and were given the Spelling and Writing Samples subtests of the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-III at pre- and posttest. Results indicated large inter-rater reliability coefficients but mixed alternate form reliability and validity evidence. CWS was the only metric to demonstrate significant growth (r = .60). CWS has the strongest evidence for use as a progress monitoring scoring metric for students at risk for LD, although information from CWSR and rubric scores could be instructionally useful.
The present study examined the effects of two error-correction procedures on the spelling performance of five students who were rising first through third grades. Each participant was diagnosed with a learning disability in reading and spelling. Using an Adapted Alternating Treatments Design, a teacher-led questioning procedure and a student-led visual comparison procedure were implemented in the unbranded Orton-Gillingham instructional model. Teacher- led questioning is the scaffolded model of error-correction described in Orton-Gillingham Simultaneous Oral Spelling instruction. Student-led visual comparison is a method which is well documented in the literature as highly effective for students with learning disabilities. The intervention results across participants showed little difference in students’ spelling accuracy under each condition. Responses to social validity questions indicated that student preference could be a determining factor in selecting which error correction method to implement in the Orton-Gillingham approach to spelling instruction.
