Joining processes in microelectronics are traditionally analysed within separate technological frameworks, including silicide formation, soldering, intermetallic growth, direct bonding, and reliability degradation. In this review, we argue that these seemingly diverse phenomena can be understood within the unified physical framework of flux-driven transformations in open systems under geometrical and mechanical constraints. We revisit several key developments in reactive-diffusion theory relevant to microelectronics, including sequential phase formation in silicides, nucleation and growth under sharp concentration gradients, flux-driven ripening during soldering, vacancy-induced porosity evolution, and stress-assisted direct metal bonding. Particular attention is paid to the role of transport-path topology, competition between characteristic kinetic processes, and the coupling between diffusion, reaction, and defect evolution. Reactive soldering and direct bonding are interpreted as two complementary classes of non-equilibrium morphological evolution. In soldering systems, sustained atomic fluxes may generate connected porous networks and flux-driven instabilities, whereas in direct bonding, the same diffusion mechanisms progressively eliminate interfacial free volume and establish metallic continuity. Reliability degradation is further discussed as a continuation of the same open-system dynamics through electromigration, void coalescence, and collective damage evolution. The review emphasises that microelectronic joining phenomena are governed not only by equilibrium thermodynamics, but also by kinetic constraints imposed by external fluxes, evolving transport networks, and mechanical fields. This perspective provides a common conceptual language for understanding phase selection, morphology evolution, bonding, and failure in modern microelectronic interconnect technologies.
The results of studies concerning the formation of the structural state of single crystals and polycrystals of iron and its alloys under sharply unbalanced conditions of pulsed laser treatment are reviewed and analysed. As shown, significant heating–cooling rates during laser treatment result in a decrease in the temperature of the γ–α-transformation and in the formation of the γ-phase. In this case, recrystallization of single crystals of α-iron is observed, as a result of which, a polycrystalline component of α-iron is formed with a b.c.c.-lattice parameter that corresponds to the initial one and, during remelting in a narrow range of energy densities, a single-crystal region of the γ-phase with an increased f.c.c.-lattice parameter and significant texture is formed too. As established, the mechanical properties along the depth of the laser influence zone are determined mainly by structural factors and change according to nonmonotonic curves with a maximum. The influence of energy parameters of pulsed laser irradiation on the formation of wavy microgeometry of the surface is revealed.
Modern mechanical engineering is grounded in the latest advances in science and technology, necessitating the implementation of reliable and fail-safe engineering solutions, which ensure the reliability and durability of machine components operating under severe conditions, including intensive loading, extreme temperatures, and corrosive environments. Addressing these challenges requires the development of technological foundations for surface modification of machine parts, using environmentally benign methods, which remains a pressing and relevant task. The present study demonstrates that, among contemporary technologies, electrospark alloying (ESA) is of particular interest, as it enables the formation of surface-layer structures with unique physicomechanical and tribological properties. The objective of this work is to develop an adequate, physically substantiated mathematical model for predicting the quality parameters of surface layers of steel components during electrospark carburizing (ESC) and electrospark nitrocarburizing (ESNC) as functions of the energy and technological parameters of ESA equipment, employing a specialised saturating technological medium (SSTM). The paper presents the results of investigations of the influence of preliminary aluminium treatment on the quality parameters of modified steel surfaces, using an SSTM composed of nitrogen–carbon constituents. Phase-composition analysis reveals that the presence of an aluminium interlayer leads to the formation of aluminium-containing phases, resulting in a significant increase in both hardness and thickness of the surface layers. Experimental dependences of surface quality parameters on the energy and technological parameters of ESA during ESNC and ESC processes are established. Based on the conducted research, mathematical models describing the dependence of surface quality on ESNC and ESC are developed, including equations for the increment of the hardened-layer thickness and the increment of surface microhardness as functions of ESA-equipment parameters. These models enable the determination of key technological characteristics of the formed layer, namely, the thickness of the hardened layer and its microhardness. A methodology for determining the constants of the increment equations for ESNC and ESC processes is developed. This includes the evaluation of both hardened-layer thickness (considering the maximum increment as a function of discharge energy, process-intensiveness, and activation energy) and microhardness (considering the maximum increment as a function of discharge energy, process-intensiveness, and activation energy). The proposed mathematical models can be applied for strengthening the surface layers of components in compressor and pumping equipment, including protective sleeves, end faces of rings, mating surfaces of casings and covers, and bearing journals of centrifugal machinery shafts, etc.
Additive manufacturing of metal products using the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) technology offers broad opportunities to produce parts with complex geometry from steels and alloys. At the same time, high temperature gradients and ultra-high cooling rates characteristic of LPBF lead to intensive formation of residual internal stresses, which negatively affect the geometric stability, mechanical properties, and operational reliability of products. The work provides a comprehensive review of recent national and international research on the mechanisms of residual-stresses’ formation and mitigation in parts made of AISI 316L steel fabricated by means of the LPBF technology. Using network bibliographic analysis (VOSviewer) with the OpenAlex database and clustering by stacking (Gephi), key scientific directions, process parameters, and scanning strategies, which influence the stress–strain state of products decisively, are systematised. The roles of the geometry of the parts, the layer thickness, the laser energy density, the orientation, and size of the scanning fields in the formation of macro- and microstresses are analysed. Special attention is paid to the analysis of regulatory and technical documentation and to the heat-treatment modes of AISI 316L steel and its analogues, as well as to the generalisation of global experience in the application of thermal methods for relieving internal stresses for the LPBF products. As shown, heat treatment is the most effective tool for achieving a favourable level and distribution of residual stresses, while maintaining the required set of mechanical properties. The results obtained can be used to substantiate the rational parameters of the LPBF process and post-processing of AISI 316L steel parts for critical engineering applications.
In recent years, the osseointegrated titanium dental implants have revolutionised the field of dentistry owing to their ability to restore oral function. Thus, they have been widely used for decades with high survival and success rates. Such prosthetic devices demonstrate high long-term success rates. However, mechanical complications similar to fatigue fracture remain the clinically significant cause of late implant failure. It is one of the important biomechanical complications that can present a considerable problem to the patient and the dentist. This article aims to elucidate the microstructural mechanism of fatigue failure of titanium dental implants. The fracture surfaces of two types of failed implant samples made of technically (commercially) pure titanium (c.p. Ti) and the Ti–6Al–4V alloy are studied. The specimens of the first type are tested in laboratory conditions under the action of cyclic loading in accordance with the European normative used for the mechanical tests (UNI EN ISO 14801); the other implant specimens are taken from the patient after their failure. The use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) on the fracture surface provides information about the failure-initiation site, loading history, environmental effects and surface-material quality of the implant body and abutment. SEM allowed confirmation that fatigue is the main implant-failure mechanism comprising a three-stage pathway well-known for metals, i.e., a stable crack propagation followed by accelerated crack propagation with apparent striations, and a final fast failure by voids’ nucleation, coalescence, and growth. Despite compliance with the requirements for the implant microstructure, stress concentration on the implant constructive peculiarities and corrosion damage, which can be induced by the aggressive oral environment, increases the fatigue-failure risk.
Progress in the physics of metals has shown that their electronic structure governs both metallic conductivity and the tendency of metals to form oxides. Modern theories, such as band theory, explain that metallic conductivity arises from delocalized electrons in partially filled energy bands. Metals, which readily lose electrons, tend to form stable oxides, whereas metals, which hold their electrons more strongly, show lower reactivity toward oxygen. Consequently, metals with high electrical conductivity generally have a lower tendency to form stable oxides. However, further progress in the metal and oxide physics revealed that some metals, such as aluminium and titanium, form thin, stable, insulating oxide layers. Based on these approaches, we synthesised a ternary composite of several transition-metal oxides for lithium-ion batteries. Although lithium transition-metal oxides are high-capacity electrochemically active materials, their structural instability at high voltages (e.g., > 4.3 V) detrimentally affects battery performance. To address this issue, we propose a ternary composite material capable of forming a medium-entropy structural phase with partial cation disorder after initial delithiation. The objective of this work is to synthesise a composite compound with lower cost and higher cyclability than commercially available lithium-ion battery cathode materials. A ternary design of transition-metal oxide composites containing Li2TiO3 and LiNi1/2Mn1/2O2 is employed instead of using LiCoO2 alone, thereby, reducing the cobalt content in the cathode material. As a result, the synthesised compound offers reduced cost and toxicity associated with cobalt, contributing to a cleaner and safer environment. Ten samples were prepared using xLi2TiO3, yLiCoO2, and (1−x−y)LiNi1/2Mn1/2O2 compositions. As found through the Raman spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, and electrochemical analysis, the LiNi1/6Mn1/6Ti1/3Co1/3O2 composite exhibits superior electrochemical performance, including higher initial charge and discharge capacities and improved cyclability, compared with traditional cathode materials.
We investigate the hydrogen storage increase through doping of Cr, Ni, Zn, Mo, Pd, and Cd on the boron nitride (BN) nanocage. Based on the nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) analysis, Ni and Pd with atomic charges of 0.2658 and 0.3266 C on the complexes of Ni@BN and Pd@BN, respectively, have shown a much greater tendency for H2 adsorption than other complexes. The results of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy have exhibited that the efficiency of electron admitting for implanting atoms on the [Cr, Ni, Zn, Mo, Pd, Cd]@BN through H2 adsorption can be ordered as Ni > Pd >> Cr > Mo ≈ Zn > Cd. Regarding thermodynamic properties, for hydrogen sites in H2 molecules, the consistencies of heteroclusters of decorated elements of Cr, Ni, Zn, Mo, Pd, and Cd can be brought up as Ni@BN > Pd@BN >> Cr@BN > Mo@BN ≈ Zn@BN > Cd@BN complexes. In addition, the hydrogen adsorption on transition metals doping BN heterocluster has been estimated through analysis of total density of states (TDOS), partial density of states (PDOS), overlap partial density of states (OPDOS) and localised orbital locator analysis (LOL). We claim that the transition metal-implanted BN can be used for designing novel materials for H2 adsorption and sensing applications.
The study of cryogenic treatment of metals has been the subject of a large number of scientific publications; therefore, the preparation of a review article aimed at summarising the current state of knowledge and identifying directions for future research is highly relevant. Although there are several reviews on the cryogenic treatment of tool steels, to date, there has been no comprehensive review addressing the effect of cryogenic treatment on changes in the microstructure of metals. Therefore, in addition, the influence of individual processing parameters, their sequence, and the effect of stabilisation at room temperature on microstructure evolution are examined here in detail. Cryogenic processing of materials is known to enhance properties such as hardness, strength, wear resistance, tensile strength, dimensional stability, corrosion resistance, etc. However, the extent of property improvement for cryogenically treated materials reported in the literature is diverse and, in some cases, contradictory. In the present study, an attempt is made to provide a comprehensive review of various scientific publications available in the literature on this topic.
This review presents a systematic analysis of recent studies (primarily, in 2019–2025, with reference to foundational earlier works) concerned with flame spraying of composite coatings, with an emphasis on the underlying physical mechanisms governing structure formation and service properties. Flame spraying is considered as complex multiphysics process involving coupled heat and mass transfer, gas dynamics, phase transformations, and mechanical deformation of particles during their interaction with the substrate. The analysis demonstrates that the physical state of particles, namely, temperature, velocity, and degree of melting, plays a decisive role in splat formation, development of interlamellar boundaries, and porosity evolution, which collectively determine the microstructure of flame-sprayed coatings. As shown, microstructure acts as a key link between process parameters and macroscopic properties, including adhesion strength, mechanical and tribological behaviour, damping capacity, and fatigue durability. Special attention is paid to the functional role of interlamellar boundaries and pores, which, beyond being structural defects, serve as dominant sources of internal friction and mechanical-energy dissipation under cyclic and dynamic loading. The review highlights the inherent trade-offs between hardness, wear resistance, adhesion reliability, residual stresses, and damping properties, emphasising the necessity of a physically grounded compromise-based design approach. The prospects for further development of flame-spraying technology are discussed in the context of in situ diagnostics, numerical modelling, multiscale analysis, and physics-based process control. These approaches enable the transition from empirical-parameter selection toward predictive design of composite and multilayer coatings with tailored and reproducible properties, expanding the application of flame-sprayed coatings in modern engineering systems from the physical-science perspective.
Accurate prediction of phase-transformation temperatures is crucial for the design and optimisation of NiTi-based shape-memory alloys, as these temperatures determine their functional performance and operating ranges. However, the relationship between alloy composition and phase-transformation behaviour is quite complex and nonlinear, making reliable prediction difficult, using conventional modelling approaches. Therefore, in this study, machine-learning methods are applied to predict the austenite final transformation temperature based on alloy composition. The dataset consists of experimentally measured NiTi-based alloys characterised by elemental atomic percentages and corresponding transformation temperatures. Before modelling, data pre-processing and feature standardisation are performed to ensure reliable model training and evaluation. Various regression methods, including ridge regression, support vector regression, Gaussian process regression, and k-nearest neighbours regression model, are applied and systematically compared. The results reveal that nonlinear machine-learning methods outperform significantly linear regression in capturing complex compositional dependences governing transformation temperatures. Specifically, nonparametric and probabilistic models demonstrate superior ability in modelling nonlinear relationships and experimental variability. The findings confirm that machine learning provides an effective and reliable framework for predicting transformation temperatures based solely on compositional parameters. The developed approach offers a valuable tool for accelerating data-driven design and optimisation of advanced shape-memory alloys, while reducing experimental effort and development time.
This work is concerned with a special class of functional materials, namely, soft magnetic alloys and composites based on them. Their main advantages and disadvantages are considered. Special attention is paid to the powder soft magnetic composites, which are a mixture of ferromagnetic powder and binder (dielectric) bound into a single conglomerate, where each powder particle is surrounded by the binder and forms a continuous dielectric phase. The main factors influencing the properties of powder soft magnetic composites are determined as follow: the choice of a ferromagnet with the required magnetic properties, the use of powder particles of the required size and shape, the use of a certain type of insulator and the method of its application, the choice of pressing conditions, and the optimal heat-treatment mode. As demonstrated, the primary method for forming the soft magnetic composites is based on the powder-metallurgy techniques. The technological process of fabrication of soft magnetic composites includes the following steps: preparation of ferromagnetic powder, mixing it with a binder, pressing, heat treatment, mechanical processing, application of a protective coating, and initial control of properties.
The oscillatory properties (both classical and quantum ones) of the Bloch point (BP) in the domain wall of a cylindrical ferromagnetic nanowire are reviewed. Based on the presented results, it is concluded that BP can be considered as a harmonic oscillator. In this case, the quantum oscillations of BP are a type of magnetic macroscopic quantum effect [1] that occurs in nickel and iron nanowires at liquid-helium temperatures. It is shown the transformation of the BP wave packet into beat that ensures the transfer of the quantum-oscillator energy. The presented results are of particular interest in the context of the development of up-to-date nanotechnologies based on the physical properties of cylindrical ferromagnetic nanowires, the magnetic structure of which is characterised by the domain wall with BP.
This review synthesises the state of the art in refining and homogenising metal-alloy structures through internal chemical modifications and external physical fields. The mechanisms, by which nanoparticles, rare-earth elements, and inoculants promote heterogeneous nucleation and control crystallisation dynamics, are analysed. The impact of mechanical oscillations, ultrasonic treatment, and electromagnetic fields on grain morphology, phase uniformity, and inclusion behaviour is evaluated. Particular attention is focused on the synergistic action of these methods to produce reinforced or composite-like microstructures with enhanced mechanical and functional performance. The review critically assesses existing knowledge and proposes a conceptual framework for further investigation of melt-processing strategies aimed at creating materials with tailored properties for advanced applications.
The optical and plasmonic properties of the metallic and metal-dielectric nanoprisms based on an equilateral triangle are studied. The equivalent spheroid approach is used to obtain the relations for the frequency dependence of the optical characteristics of the studied nanoparticles. The calculations are performed for the frequency depen dences of the diagonal components of the polarizability tensor, electric field enhance ment tensor, spectral figure of merit tensor, quality factor tensor, as well as the ex tinction crosssection, and radiation efficiency. The size dependences for the frequencies of the transverse and longitudinal surface plasmonic resonances are obtained, and the corresponding estimates are given. The presence of the significant splitting of the surfaceplasmonic resonance is proven, and the corresponding estimates are given. The influence of the thickness of the dielectric layer and the sizes of the prismatic metallic core on the behaviour of the studied optical characteristics of the nanostructure is analysed. The influence of the core and shell materials of the prism on the position of the extinction crosssection maxima is demonstrated. The spectral range, in which the radiation efficiency of the studied nanostructures is close to unity, is determined. The comparison of the diagonal components of the tensor optical characteristics is carried out, and the reason for the predominance of the transverse components of the electric field enhancement, quality factor, and spectral figure of merit tensors over the corre sponding longitudinal components is established. The possibilities of using the consi dered nanostructures to create surfaceplasmonic resonance sensors and high quality optical nanoresonators are discussed.
The review consolidates state-of-the-art research on the AlSi10Mg alloy, specifically focusing on the samples produced by selective laser melting (SLM). Currently, SLM is the most promising technique among the emerging additive-manufacturing (AM) technologies used for printing AlSi10Mg-alloy parts in industrial applications such as aerospace and automotive. The more specific goal of this study is to analyse how the fatigue behaviour of printed AlSi10Mg-alloy samples by SLM is influenced by printing parameters and post-processing treatments, in order to improve product quality under conditions of exposure to vibrations of different frequencies and intensities. It is important to note that the fatigue performance properties of the SLM-produced parts are evaluated according to the relative bulk and surface microstructures and defects’ criteria. The following printing parameters are analysed: laser power, layer thickness, scanning speeds, hatch distances, platform temperature, and printing orientation. Additionally, the review examines post-processing treatments enhancing fatigue resistance. These ones include heat treatment (age hardening and stress relief), friction stir processing, hot isostatic pressing, stream finishing process, and shot peening. The fatigue behaviour is compared for the as-printed and surface-modified samples. Furthermore, the impact of these treatments on the alloy microstructure, particularly, the distribution and morphology of the Si phases within the aluminium matrix, is critically discussed, as they influence fatigue.
Titanium-based layered materials, which combine hard layers of metal matrix compo-sites (MMCs) with ductile alloy layers, show great promise for achieving enhanced mechanical and service performance. In this study, two-layer materials are investi-gated, consisting of a base substrate made of cast and wrought titanium alloy (T-6Al-4V plates), with top layers of MMCs 3D-printed on them. These MMC layers are also based on the Ti-6Al-4V alloy and reinforced with 40 vol.% TiC particles. A cored wire containing the MMC composition is used as feedstock in an advanced 3D-printing technique that employs a low-voltage profile electron beam as the heat sour-ce, enabling optimised coaxial wire feeding. The results show that, by varying the thicknesses of the individual layers, it is possible to create advanced materials, which exhibit a superior combination of strength, hardness, and ductility, i.e., properties, which are not achievable in single-layer cast or wrought titanium alloys or in standalone MMCs. To identify the features responsible for the enhanced properties, we examined the microstructure of the 3D-printed MMC layers and the interface with the base materials in detail. Ballistic tests are conducted on the layered MMC/ alloy materials to evaluate their suitability for use in bullet-resistant applications. The effects of microstructure, layer thickness, and the combination of constituent materials on protective performance are analysed to optimise the balance of desirable properties. These materials are also compared with other types of 3D-printed layered and homogeneous titanium-based materials in terms of ballistic resistance. Their potential place among other armour materials is discussed.
Additive manufacturing (AM) has emerged as a promising technique for producing high-performance titanium alloys, particularly, Ti-6Al-4V, due to its design flexibility, near-net-shape fabrication, and efficient material use. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the microstructural features and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloys fabricated by various AM methods, with a primary focus on selective laser melting (SLM), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), and wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). The influence of processing parameters (such as laser power, scanning speed, hatch spacing, and energy density) on porosity, grain morphology, and anisotropy is critically examined based on recent experimental findings. The role of heat treatment in modifying microstructure, relieving residual stresses, and improving strength and ductility is also discussed. The article provides a detailed review of recent experimental and analytical studies on the influence of AM parameters, particularly, WAAM, on the formation of microstructure and mechanical performance of Ti-6Al-4V. Emphasis is placed on the effects of wire feed rate, arc current, interlayer cooling temperature, and thermal cycling on structural heterogeneity, grain size, alpha/beta-phase distribution, and melt zone defect formation. The role of thermal and thermomechanical post-processings in reducing residual stresses and enhancing plasticity and structural homogeneity is analysed. The review also considers morphological transitions between columnar and equiaxed grains, phase transformations across various deposition zones, and the effects of cooling rate on crystallographic texture. Comparative evaluation reveals that powder bed fusion technologies enable superior resolution and mechanical performance, while WAAM is better suited for large-scale components, but requires additional post-processing to reduce thermal gradients and texture-induced anisotropy. Representative case studies highlight correlations between process conditions and tensile strength, elongation, hardness, and fracture behaviour. Constructive process design strategies for thermal-field control and deformation minimisation during deposition are outlined. The findings underline the importance of integrated parameter optimisation and post-treatment strategies to meet aerospace standards such as AMS 6932. The article is relevant for specialists in physical metallurgy, materials science, and aerospace engineering, as it contributes to a scientifically grounded understanding of the relationship between WAAM-process parameters and the microstructural and mechanical characteristics of additively manufactured titanium alloys.
Stainless steels and heat-resistant alloys of the Fe-Cr, Fe-Mn, Fe-Mn-N, Fe-Ni, and Fe-Cr-Ni systems are leading materials for critical components, particularly, in the aviation and energy sectors. Their use in the form of powder alloys expands the possibilities of additive technologies and enhances the functional properties of products made of them. Well known that, simultaneously, technological problems must be solved and computer-modelling methods implemented to optimise the microstructure design of future products. The article systematises current understanding of the features of phase-state formation during laser-powder bed fusion (LPBF) and direct energy deposition (DED) processes, the influence of 3D-printing parameters on the morphology of gamma- and gamma '-phases, as well as on the formation of secondary phases such as topologically close-packed (TCP) ones and carbides. The main mechanisms of defect formation, residual stresses and porosity, which determine the operational properties of products, are considered. Effective approaches to enhancing structural stability are presented, including the use of thermomechanical post-treatment hot isostatic pressing (HIP), optimisation of granulometric and chemical compositions, application of computer modelling methods (CALPHAD, machine learning (ML), neural networks, etc.) and the implementation of in-situ alloying technologies. Special attention is given to the latest trends in the development of additive technologies for nickel superalloys, particularly, the creation of next-generation additive-manufacturing (AM) oriented materials, digital process monitoring, and the transition to a sustainable ('green') manufacturing concept. The review conducted allows for the identification of key scientific and technological directions to ensure the stability of the microstructure, crack resistance, and durability of nickel-superalloy components produced by additive-manufacturing methods.
The method of describing the energy spectrum, free energy, and electrical conduc tivity of disordered crystals based on the use of the Hamiltonian of electrons and phonons is reviewed, analysed, and developed. The electron states of a system are described through the tight binding model. A simple procedure for calculating the matrix elements of the Hamiltonian within the Wannier's representation is proposed. Expressions for the Green's functions, free energy, and electrical conductivity are derived using the diagram method. Using this procedure, the vertex parts of the mass operators of the electron-electron and electron-phonon interactions are renormalized. A set of exact equations is obtained for the spectrum of elementary excitations in a crystal. This enables the performance of numerical calculations on the energy spectrum and the prediction of system properties with predetermined accuracy. Expressions are obtained for the static waves of concentrations, charge and spin densities, which de termine the phase state of a disordered crystal. In contrast to other approaches, which account for electron correlations only within the limiting cases of infinitely large and infinitesimal electron densities, this method describes electron correlations in the gen eral case of an arbitrary density. In addition to the theory, the results of a numerical calculation of the energy spectrum of a graphene layer with adsorbed potassium (K) atoms are presented. As established, at the K atoms' concentration such that the unit cell includes two carbon (C) atoms and one K atom, the latter being located (adsorbed) on the graphene layer surface 0.286 nm above the C atom, the energy gap is @0.25 eV. The location of the Fermi level (epsilon F) in the energy spectrum depends on the potassium atoms' concentration and is in the energy interval-0.36 Ry <= epsilon F <= -0.23 Ry.
The paper considers a special class of structural materials3/4amorphous alloys. Unlike crystalline alloys, there is no translation symmetry in the arrangement of atoms in amorphous alloys, which have only shortrange atomic order. As demonstrated, the primary experimental techniques for confirming the formation of an amorphous struc ture are Xray diffraction analysis (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The effects of the manufacturing processes, structural relaxation, and solidification on the mechanical properties of amorphous alloys are discussed. The differences in the deformation processes between crystalline and amorphous alloys are considered. Deformation of crystalline alloys occurs due to dislocation sliding, whereas amorphous alloys are deformed due to the local rearrangement of atoms that requires significantly higher energies or stresses. As shown, three main types of crystallisation processes can occur, depending on the chemical composition of an amorphous alloy. The first one is polymorphic crystallization, when an amorphous alloy is transformed into a super saturated solid solution, a metastable or stable crystalline phase without changing its composition. In the second case, two crystalline phases are formed simultaneously due to the eutectic reaction. The third type corresponds to primary crystallization, when stable or metastable phase is formed at the first stage.
