The present study aimed to characterize soybean pressed fiber obtained through wet fractionation of green biomass and evaluate the effects of variety and vegetation window on its composition and valorization potential. Four soybean varieties (Advisor, Bólyi 612, Isidor, and Pannónia kincse) were investigated across two distinct vegetation windows using anatomical, cell wall, biochemical, and pigment analyses. Significant variety-dependent differences were observed in several anatomical traits related to biomass quality. Isidor exhibited the greatest leaf blade thickness, while Advisor showed favorable stem structural characteristics and enhanced cuticle development. Cell wall analysis revealed significant differences in xylan, arabinan, and Klason lignin between vegetation windows, while glucan content was affected by both variety and vegetation window, with the highest value observed in Advisor during the first vegetation window. Photosynthetic pigment composition remained relatively stable among varieties and vegetation windows. Because the two vegetation windows occurred during different calendar periods, the observed differences may reflect both plant developmental status and seasonal environmental conditions and cannot be exclusively attributed to harvest timing. This one-year exploratory study provides baseline information on soybean pressed fiber as a potential secondary biomass resource. Further multi-year and multi-environment studies are required to assess the stability and environmental consistency of these findings.
Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is a globally vital oil and cash crop. However, frequent cold stress severely compromises its yield stability. To address this challenge, we conducted quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping for two cold tolerance-associated traits, namely relative emergence rate (RER) and relative emergence index (REI), across four distinct environments using a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population derived from the cold-tolerant landrace Silihong and cold-sensitive cultivar Jinonghei 3. Two core QTLs associated with cold tolerance were detected, including qRER6 stable across all environments with PVE of 4.91–5.15% and a co-localized QTL qRER18.1/qREI18.2 on chromosome 18 that governs both target traits with PVE of 14.56–14.71% and 10.34%. Through integrated analysis of QTL mapping and Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), Arahy.657RUG was identified as a candidate cold tolerance gene and designated Ahcold18. Differential expression analysis and heterologous overexpression in Arabidopsis thaliana under freezing stress (−9 °C) showed that Ahcold18 enhances plant survival under low-temperature stress, suggesting a general role in cold tolerance that warrants further investigation in the context of peanut chilling tolerance. A gene-based KASP marker (KASP-2374669), developed from variant sites within Ahcold18, showed preliminary association with RER and REI in the RIL population; however, further validation in diverse germplasm is required to confirm its utility for marker-assisted selection. This study provides a critical genetic resource and a precise technical tool for marker-assisted breeding of cultivated peanut with cold tolerance.
Historically, sweet violet (Viola odorata L.) was an important plant used in various ways, including folk medicine, rituals and festivals, as food, and as an ornamental plant in gardens. The use of this species has varied from ancient times to the present; it is most consistently praised as a medicinal plant, while its popularity as an ornamental and edible species has been intermittent. A review of the extensive scientific literature on its pharmacological and medicinal properties demonstrates its value and the immense diversity of its uses in these fields to this day. While providing a concise overview of its importance for medicinal applications, this paper focuses on the much smaller body of scientific literature concerning horticulture and botany. The aim is to present a comprehensive overview of research on sweet violet, with a primary focus on combining, connecting, and making more accessible notable and related works concerning its taxonomy, morphology, anatomy, and horticultural production. A review of published studies shows fragmented and too specific studies of anatomical structure that are difficult to compare, as well as data gaps in areas of cultivation, hybridisation, selection, and broader comparisons between different populations of this species. It also highlights the overall economic importance which, in combination with the lack of commercial production, results in potentially problematic practices regarding the exploitation of this species in its natural habitats.
Seed germination induces profound physiological and metabolic changes that promote the synthesis and accumulation of bioactive metabolites in cereal grains. However, the combined effects of germination time and temperature on these responses in black rice (Oryza sativa L.) remain poorly understood. This study investigated how controlled germination modulates the accumulation of GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) and phenolic metabolites and identified optimal conditions for obtaining bioactive-rich water-soluble extracts. A central composite design was applied by varying germination time (24–96 h) and temperature (14–32 °C). Germinated flours and their corresponding water-soluble extracts were analyzed for GABA, total soluble phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC). Response surface methodology, desirability analysis, principal component analysis, heatmap, and partial least squares discriminant analysis were used to characterize metabolic responses and optimize germination conditions. Germination significantly altered metabolite accumulation, with higher GABA levels observed at lower temperatures, whereas phenolic metabolites showed distinct responses to the interaction between time and temperature. Multivariate analyses revealed clear metabolic differentiation among germination treatments. Multi-response optimization identified 27 h and 19.7 °C as the optimal germination conditions. These findings demonstrate that controlled germination modulates the bioactive profile of black rice, enhancing phytochemical accumulation and supporting the production of bioactive-rich water-soluble extracts.
Plants are increasingly exposed to simultaneous warming, drought, and herbivory, yet how invasive and native species regulate carbon allocation under these interacting stressors remains poorly understood. We conducted a full-factorial greenhouse experiment manipulating temperature (+3 °C), soil water availability, and herbivory to compare carbon allocation responses in the invasive Solidago canadensis and its native congener S. decurrens. Drought emerged as the dominant driver of carbon reallocation, shifting investment away from biomass production and photosynthetic function toward belowground allocation, osmotic adjustment, defense, and structural reinforcement. Herbivory imposed additional carbon demands and modified drought-induced responses, particularly by constraining phenolic accumulation under combined stress, whereas warming had comparatively weaker and largely context-dependent effects. Our results showed that the two species differed in how carbon was distributed under stress: S. canadensis maintained greater biomass, chlorophyll, soluble sugars, and hemicellulose, whereas S. decurrens showed stronger investment in structural components. Structural equation models further revealed contrasting pathways linking physiological, defensive, and structural traits to biomass, supporting species-specific strategies of carbon allocation under multiple stressors. These findings suggest that the greater carbon-allocation flexibility observed in S. canadensis may contribute to maintaining performance under increasingly variable environmental conditions. However, because S. canadensis was raised directly from field-collected seeds without a refresher generation, potential maternal environmental effects cannot be completely excluded. Overall, our findings identify coordinated redistribution of carbon among competing functional pools as a potential mechanism underlying contrasting stress responses in these two congeneric species.
The genus Bartramia, commonly known as “Apple Moss,” is characterized by its globose to subglobose capsules. However, the species diversity and distribution of the genus in China remain incompletely known due to the lack of a comprehensive taxonomic revision. In this study, we conducted a taxonomic revision of this genus in China, based on recent field collections and herbarium specimens. In total, 120 specimens from twelve provinces in China were examined. Bartramia deciduifolia is newly reported for China, where it occurs in Qinghai, Sichuan, Xizang, and Yunnan. Seven species are recognized in China: B. brevifolia, B. deciduifolia, B. halleriana, B. ithyphylla, B. laevisphaera, B. pomiformis, and B. subulata. Among them, B. laevisphaera is proposed as an endangered [EN B2ab(ii, iii)] species due to its small population and habitat, while the other six species are Least Concern (LC). Detailed morphological descriptions, color illustrations, and distributional information are provided, together with an updated identification key to the Chinese species.
Soil salinization acts as a major abiotic stress and severely hampers global agricultural productivity. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying plant salt tolerance is of great significance for crop improvement. Remorin (REM) proteins are plant-specific membrane marker proteins that play a key role in stress signaling; however, their function in the salt tolerance response of sugar beet remains unclear. In this study, 14 BvREM gene family members were identified. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that this family can be divided into five subgroups and exhibits significant interspecies collinearity with Arabidopsis. Transcriptomic analysis showed that several BvREM genes were up-regulated under salt stress, with BvREM12 displaying greater expression fold change than most other family members. Using sugar beet line M14 as the gene resource material, we explored the potential function and proposed a working regulatory model for candidate gene BvREM12 in salt stress response. Subcellular localization results indicated that the BvREM12 protein is localized to the cell membrane and nucleus. Overexpression of BvREM12 significantly increased biomass accumulation in Arabidopsis, elevated antioxidant enzyme activities, decreased MDA levels, and increased proline content; a high K+/Na+ ratio was maintained, whilst Ca2+ levels were significantly higher than in the Col-0. Furthermore, qRT-PCR analysis revealed that several key salt-responsive genes were significantly up-regulated under salt stress. In summary, BvREM12 integrates the ‘Ca2+-SOS3-SOS2-SOS1’ signaling pathway with the ‘H+-ATPase-AKT1’ ion transport system to synergistically regulate Na+ efflux and K+ influx, thereby maintaining cellular ion homeostasis and redox balance, and significantly enhancing the plant salt tolerance. This study systematically characterized the sugar beet BvREM gene family and functionally dissected BvREM12. Different from previous studies on REM proteins mainly focusing on ROS scavenging at plasma membrane nanodomains, our work reveals that BvREM12, which is dual-localized to the plasma membrane and nucleus, coordinates the Ca2+-dependent SOS signaling cascade and H+-ATPase-AKT1 ion transport system to jointly maintain ion homeostasis and redox balance under salt stress. This work provides candidate genes and a mechanistic reference for molecular breeding of salt-tolerant sugar beet.
Climate change poses a threat to bryophytes with restricted distributions and strong dependence on humid habitats. We assessed the climatic suitability of the moss genus Tetrastichium across the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. We compiled 90 records each for Tetrastichium fontanum and Tetrastichium virens and fitted Boosted Regression Tree models using WorldClim 2.1 bioclimatic predictors. Future suitability was projected for 2061–2080 and 2081–2100 using two global climate models under SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5. Model performance was good (AUC = 0.88, sTSS = 0.81, and sensitivity ≥ 0.94). Under current and future conditions, suitable areas were unevenly distributed among archipelagos. Climatically suitable areas generally increased in the Azores but contracted substantially in Madeira and the Canary Islands. Under UKESM1-0-LL, no suitable areas in the Canary Islands remained above the climatic-suitability threshold by the end of the century. Spatial overlap between current and future predictions declined under stronger climate forcing and longer time horizons, being consistently higher for T. virens. These findings reveal the high sensitivity of Tetrastichium to climate change, identifying Madeira and the Canary Islands as areas of conservation concern. Protecting extant populations and environmentally buffered habitats will be essential for the genus’s persistence under future climates.
Halophytes are recognized for their adaptive capacity and potential applications in phytomanagement and ecosystem restoration. This study investigates the comparative physiology and antioxidant responses of two native halophytes, Caroxylon vermiculatum (L.) and Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum L., growing naturally in saline and metal-affected coastal environments. A comprehensive set of physiological and biochemical parameters was assessed, including macro- and microelements (Na, K, Ca, Fe, Zn, Cd), photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids), soluble sugars, and proteins. In addition, oxidative stress markers (hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, and malondialdehyde, MDA), enzymatic antioxidants (superoxide dismutase, SOD, catalase, CAT, and guaiacol peroxidase, GPX), and non-enzymatic antioxidants (total phenolics, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins) were evaluated. Antioxidant activities, including DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging and reducing power, were also measured. The results revealed clear species-specific adaptive strategies. Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum exhibited higher accumulation of Na and K, together with elevated levels of carotenoids and oxidative stress markers. This species showed translocation factors (TF > 1) for Na (~1.60) and K (~1.90), indicating efficient ion transport to aerial parts, while displaying low bioconcentration (BCF < 0.5 for most trace elements) and biological accumulation factors (BAF < 1), suggesting limited capacity for heavy metal accumulation. In contrast, Caroxylon vermiculatum showed higher concentrations of chlorophylls, carotenoids, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and proteins, along with stronger superoxide dismutase activity. It also exhibited lower translocation of trace elements (TF < 1) and higher root retention of metals (BCF up to ~0.5), indicating a more effective exclusion and detoxification strategy. Overall, these findings demonstrate that M. nodiflorum relies on ion accumulation and translocation, whereas C. vermiculatum exhibits stronger ion regulation and antioxidant protection. Given the moderate BAF and BCF values observed, both species are more likely to contribute to phytomanagement through ion regulation and phytostabilization rather than efficient phytoextraction.
Oxytetracycline (OTC) is a widely used veterinary antibiotic worldwide due to its extensive use in livestock production. However, information regarding its uptake, biochemical and physiological effects in macrophytes remains limited. This study evaluated OTC uptake, bioaccumulation, translocation, and associated biochemical and physiological responses in seedlings of the wetland macrophyte Bidens laevis, exposed for 48 h to environmentally relevant concentrations (0, 0.05, 0.5, 5, 10 and 100 µg L−1). OTC accumulated in the roots and shoots, with bioaccumulation factors exceeding 1 in all treatments. At low concentrations, OTC was translocated to the shoots, whereas root retention predominated at 100 µg L−1. Antioxidant enzyme activities in shoots generally decreased with increasing OTC concentrations, while root responses remained comparatively stable. Chlorophyll contents increased with exposure, whereas lipid peroxidation showed limited variation. Multivariate analyses revealed contrasting effects of exposure concentration and organ accumulation on plant responses. Overall, B. laevis exhibited a high capacity to accumulate OTC and tolerate environmentally relevant concentrations, supporting its potential use in phytoremediation strategies.
Stable transformation in rose is slow and genotype-dependent, motivating rapid cellular assays for candidate-gene testing. We systematically evaluated mesophyll protoplast isolation and PEG-mediated transient expression in Rosa chinensis ‘Old Blush’. Sequential experiments compared enzyme preparations, digestion time, D-mannitol concentration, cultivar, and donor cultivation regime. Under the tested conditions, Yakult preparations containing 3.0% Cellulase R-10 and 2.0% Macerozyme R-10, 16 h digestion, and 0.4 mol/L D-mannitol yielded 4.641 ± 0.102 × 106 protoplasts/g fresh weight with 94.26 ± 0.15% FDA viability. Recovery varied significantly among donor regimes and between the two cultivars tested. In a 27-combination factorial experiment with three plants as blocks, 25% PEG 4000 working solution (12.5% nominal final concentration), 8 min transfection, and 20 h dark incubation gave the highest observed mGFP6-positive fraction (7.14 ± 0.22%). This efficiency supports imaging of individually transfected cells under the tested conditions, but broader population-level or high-throughput applications require further validation. Protoplast division, plant regeneration, stable transformation, cross-date reproducibility, and transfer to other genotypes were not assessed.
Cytogenetic information remains limited for many rare and geographically restricted species of Zingiber in Thailand. This study investigated chromosome numbers, karyotype characteristics, centromeric-index and relative chromosome-length variation, and karyotype asymmetry in Z. brachystachys, Z. gramineum, Z. mekongense, Z. pellitum, and Z. pyroglossum. Somatic chromosomes were examined from root-tip meristems using the aceto-orcein squash technique, followed by quantitative karyotype analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), UPGMA clustering, and Stebbins asymmetry classification. All five examined taxa had 2n = 22 and NF = 44 but differed in karyotype formula: 8sm + 3st, 3m + 7sm + 1st, 5sm + 6st, 1m + 5sm + 5st, and 7sm + 3st + 1t, respectively. Multivariate analyses incorporating both centromeric index (CI) and relative chromosome length (RL) showed clear karyomorphometric differentiation among the five taxa. UPGMA analysis grouped Z. pellitum and Z. brachystachys most closely, whereas Z. gramineum joined the remaining taxa at the greatest clustering distance. The first two PCA components explained 74.591% of the total variation. Stebbins categories ranged from 3A to 4B. These results provide new comparative cytogenetic data for five rare Thai Zingiber species and demonstrate interspecific variation in chromosome morphology despite uniformity in chromosome number.
Lippia lasiocalycina Cham. is a wild medicinal species native to Brazil, belonging to the Lamiaceae family, with bioactive potential in its essential oils. However, it remains poorly studied, especially in the fields of conservation and domestication. Phenological studies enable the understanding of relationships between abiotic factors and plant developmental stages, supporting cultivation strategies. In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of seasonality on the phenology of Lippia lasiocalycina under the environmental conditions of Feira de Santana, Bahia. The species was propagated and cultivated under field conditions, and phenological data were collected biweekly over 12 months to assess the intensity and synchrony of phenophases. Climatic variables were obtained from specialized sources and correlated with phenological events, including circular statistical analysis. The species showed high phenological synchrony, with continuous budburst and mature leaves throughout the year, indicating potential for year-round exploitation. Fruiting, however, exhibited seasonal behavior and a negative correlation with precipitation. Leaf fall was negatively correlated with precipitation and humidity, and positively associated with radiation, temperature, and photoperiod, while senescence showed the opposite trend. These results contribute to the development of cultivation strategies and to defining optimal periods for management and harvesting.
The rhizosphere microbiome, the plant’s “second genome” is pivotal for crop nutrient acquisition, health, and stress responses. While fertilization ensures high agricultural yields, a key challenge is reshaping this microbiome to boost crop performance. This review synthesizes how mineral, organic, and bio-organic/microbial inoculant fertilizers affect rhizosphere microbial structure, diversity, and function. Long-term excessive mineral fertilizers (especially nitrogen) reduce microbial diversity, diminish beneficial groups (e.g., diazotrophs, PGPR), and disrupt microbial networks via soil acidification and altered root exudates, causing continuous cropping obstacles. In contrast, organic fertilizers improve soil microenvironments, maintaining high microbial diversity, enriching beneficial taxa (e.g., Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria), and enhancing community complexity. Bio-organic fertilizers/microbial inoculants “engineer” the microbiome by introducing exogenous beneficial microbes (e.g., Bacillus, Pseudomonas, AMF), directly promoting growth, suppressing diseases, and “reconditioning” indigenous beneficial communities. We also clarify how fertilization regulates plant-microbe dialog via root exudates and rhizosphere chemistry (e.g., pH, ion balance), discuss current challenges (causality, lab-to-field translation, genotype-microbiome-fertilization interactions), and outline future directions. Integrating rhizosphere microbiome management into fertilization is crucial for reducing chemical fertilizer reliance and advancing agricultural green transformation.
The use of uniform spray volume rates for fruit trees with different canopy sizes is common in orchard spraying with plant protection unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), whereas the applicability of Leaf Wall Area (LWA)- and Tree Row Volume (TRV)-based methods to UAV spraying remains insufficiently validated. This study evaluated canopy size-based spray volume optimization and droplet deposition and penetration along the vertical canopy profile in a mountainous Nanguo pear orchard. The results showed that, under a uniform spray volume rate, small canopy trees exhibited significantly higher droplet deposition and ground deposition than large canopy trees, indicating greater potential spray losses. LWA- and TRV-based adjustment reduced the spray volume rate for small canopy trees by 43.0% and 49.0%, respectively, while maintaining comparable deposition in the upper and middle canopy layers. However, deposition in the lower canopy and on abaxial leaf surfaces remained limited, indicating that conventional LWA and TRV methods do not fully account for the top-down deposition characteristics of UAV spraying. Along the vertical canopy profile, finer atomization levels generally favored droplet penetration into the lower canopy, whereas increasing the spray volume rate increased overall deposition but did not significantly improve vertical penetration. Flight speed showed no consistent effect on penetration within the tested range. The results highlight canopy size as a key factor in UAV spray deposition. Canopy size-based variable-rate application can reduce spray volume rate while maintaining effective deposition, but further optimization should consider rotor-induced airflow and canopy structure.
(1) Background: Horsenettle (Solanum carolinense) is a noxious weed widely distributed across North America and increasingly invasive in other regions. Its strong environmental adaptability, complex defense strategies, and distinctive reproductive traits make it an important model for studying plant-herbivore coevolution. However, the absence of high-quality genomic resources has limited deeper investigation into its adaptive evolutionary mechanisms. (2) Methods: In this study we generated a chromosome-level reference genome assembly for S. carolinense using an integrated approach combining PacBio HiFi long-read sequencing, Illumina second-generation sequencing, and Hi-C chromosome-mapping; (3) The final genome assembly has a total length of 915.40 Mb, with a contig N50 of 51.06 Mb and a scaffold N50 of 73.17 Mb; 96.05% of the sequences were successfully mapped to 12 pseudo-chromosomes. The genome is characterized by a high proportion of repetitive sequences (73.64%) and substantial heterozygosity (1.13%), consistent with a highly repetitive and highly heterozygous genome. BUSCO analysis indicates a completeness of 94.7%. A total of 32,206 protein-coding genes were annotated, of which 97.95% received functional annotations; (4) Conclusions: This reference genome provides a valuable resource for advancing research on the adaptive evolution of Solanaceae weeds, supports the development of more effective management strategies for this troublesome species, and offers a technical reference for assembling other highly heterozygous weed genomes.
Climate change poses growing risks to maize-based food systems, yet comparative evidence across climatically similar regions on different continents remains limited. This study compares climate change impacts and adaptation responses in rainfed maize systems in Nakuru County, Kenya, and Northwest China—two geographically distant but climatically similar regions. The CERES-Maize model (DSSAT v4.7), the latest version available when this study was conducted, was calibrated and validated using observed phenology and grain yield data (2005–2009) from Agricultural Meteorological Experimental Stations. Independent evaluation confirmed excellent model performance, with a normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) of less than 10%. The model was driven by bias-corrected climate projections under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 for the 2030s (2021–2040) and 2050s (2041–2060), relative to the 1986–2005 baseline. Changes in climate, maize phenology, and yield were quantified, and adaptation strategies were evaluated against the baseline. Warming and increased precipitation accelerated maize development, causing yield declines of 3–27% in Nakuru County and 5–22% in Northwest China, with larger losses under RCP8.5. Adaptation measures—including planting-date adjustments, supplemental irrigation, and late-maturing cultivars—increased yields by up to 39% in Kenya and 29% in Northwest China, with combined strategies outperforming individual measures. Coordinated, multi-strategy adaptation can offset a large share of projected yield declines, offering practical pathways to sustain maize productivity under future climate change.
Water-level fluctuation (WLF) is a key factor disturbing aquatic ecosystems, particularly aquatic plants (macrophytes in this review). These organisms are exceptionally sensitive to WLF as it profoundly governs their spatial distribution, productivity, species richness, community composition and successional trajectories. In this review, we synthesized recent advances regarding the impacts of WLF on the growth environment, survival strategies, and the integrated morphological, physiological, and reproductive responses of aquatic macrophytes. While existing research has predominantly focused on flooding-related WLF responses and freshwater macrophytes, the ecological consequences of drawdown and the responses of marine macrophytes remain comparatively underexplored. Despite the adverse alterations in sediment dynamics, light availability, hydrostatic pressure, pollutant concentrations, wind and wave exposure, dissolved oxygen levels and nutrient concentration conditions under WLF, aquatic macrophytes can demonstrate remarkable adaptive plasticity. This resilience was mediated through rapid adjustments in survival strategies, coupled with morphological traits, physiological processes and reproductive modifications. While their adaptive capacities were limited, and varied depending on life-forms, species or the WLF amplitudes, fluctuations in water level often precipitated rapid shifts in dominant species or even community succession over short timeframes. Consequently, while moderate WLF might confer ecological benefits, prolonged or extreme WLF posed substantial threats to aquatic vegetation. Synthesizing these findings, we developed a conceptual model diagram integrating the multifaceted responses of aquatic macrophytes to flooding-induced WLF. Future research should prioritize investigating the ecological consequences of drawdown-induced WLF and the responses of marine macrophytes—areas that remain comparatively underexplored. Furthermore, implementing refined water-level-management regimes could help optimize the good functions and services delivered by aquatic ecosystems.
While previous reviews have largely focused on individual crops or single target-site mechanisms, the full-chain comparative landscape across major cereal crops remains unexplored. Here, we fill this critical gap by providing the first systematic, cross-crop comparative review that spans herbicide targets, resistance mechanisms, and breeding applications across four major cereals—rice, maize, wheat, and sorghum. Weed infestation is a serious constraint on crop production. Chemical weed control faces challenges such as herbicide resistance evolution and ecological risks. Developing herbicide-resistant varieties is a fundamental approach to achieve green and sustainable weed management. This review systematically summarizes research progress on herbicide resistance genes from three aspects: herbicide classification, resistance mechanisms, and crop breeding applications. It highlights key differences among four major cereal crops (rice, maize, wheat, and sorghum) in resistance-gene discovery and translational progress. Rice has the richest target-site resistance-gene resources. Maize leads in commercialization of transgenic herbicide resistance. Wheat focuses on endogenous precise editing due to genome complexity and regulatory constraints. Sorghum relies on specific mutations to serve cereal–legume intercropping systems. Based on this comparison, this review identifies the core trends in resistance breeding: from single-gene to multi-gene stacking, and from exogenous gene introduction to endogenous gene editing. It also points out common bottlenecks, including insufficient systematic mining of resistance-gene resources, lagging elucidation of non-target-site resistance regulatory networks, and strong genotype dependence in genetic transformation. Future efforts should focus on exploring broad-spectrum resistance genes, optimizing precise editing technologies, and developing sustainable resistance management strategies. This review provides a theoretical framework and practical references for molecular breeding of herbicide-resistant crops.
Seed-associated microorganisms influence seed quality, seedling establishment, and plant health and also constitute a major source of seed-borne pathogens. Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) has emerged as a promising alternative to chemical seed treatments because of its antimicrobial activity, although its effects on fungal communities associated with developing seedlings remain poorly understood. Here, Arabidopsis thaliana seeds from two ecotypes (Columbia and Landsberg erecta) were exposed to CAP for 5 or 15 min. Seed decontamination efficiency was assessed by culturing on malt extract agar and nephelometric analyses, while fungal communities associated with seedlings derived from treated and untreated seeds were characterized by ITS1 amplicon sequencing. CAP efficiently reduced fungal contamination without affecting seed germination. CAP altered the composition of fungal communities associated with developing seedlings, but the magnitude of these changes depended on seed batch and ecotype. Dominant taxa markedly declined after treatment, whereas several low-abundance taxa increased in relative abundance. These findings demonstrate that CAP is an effective pesticide-free technology for seed decontamination and can also reshape fungal communities associated with developing seedlings, highlighting broader ecological consequences of plasma-based seed treatments.
