The acquisition of English vocabulary items related to the academic context, which involve both the so-called academic vocabulary and the field-specific technical vocabulary, is crucial for university students in programmes with English as a medium of instruction (EMI). The use of vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs), especially the types that require active information manipulation, is an individual difference factor in language learning that was found to characterize proficient learners with high vocabulary size. This finding indicates the importance of VLS use in the academic context as well and provides relevance to conduct research about the VLS preferences of international students with diverse backgrounds in EMI programmes at Hungarian universities. The aims of the study are to check the reliability of an adaptation of a recent questionnaire about academic VLS use across different cultural, linguistic, and educational backgrounds, to explore the VLS use of international students in the academic context in Hungary, and the impact that gender, educational level, educational field, region of origin, and previous instruction in VLS use in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses have on it. The study consisted of an initial piloting phase with 5 participants and a main data collection with 390 participants with diverse educational and geographical-cultural backgrounds, who were administered the adapted questionnaire that was modified after the initial piloting. The adapted questionnaire demonstrated acceptable to good reliability (most scales α ≥ 0.70; lowest subscale α = 0.588); and the participants were found to apply dictionary use and inferencing/guessing with the highest frequency. Few differences were found; however, the results indicate that previous VLS instruction in EAP and ESP courses has a slightly stronger impact on VLS use than the other variables. These findings call the attention of stakeholders to the need for more EAP and ESP learning opportunities for international students in programmes with EMI, with explicit instruction in VLSs that could contribute to success in their studies.
The study fills a gap in the field of applied linguistics, which has not been widely explored, by considering the pedagogical effectiveness and ethical use of AI in higher education. Addressing an underexplored empirical area in applied linguistics, the research builds on recent studies such as Yin and Hanif (2024) and focuses on pedagogical effectiveness and ethical implementation in higher education. A pretest-posttest control group design was used with 148 first-semester undergraduate students. The control group (n = 74) received no intervention, while the experimental group (n = 74) was assigned to a 15-week program using AI via ChatGPT, Claude AI, Meta AI, and Gemini, along with structured ethical practices, including evaluating AI output, paraphrasing, and transparency. The control group was taught in a traditional manner (n = 74). The quantitative results indicated that the AI group had significantly higher scores in both vocabulary and reading comprehension (p < .001). Immediate improvements in vocabulary were observed during the early testing period, but leveled off in the control group in later tests; reading comprehension took time to develop but was maintained. There were also gender differences, possibly due to differences in learning preferences, as males showed greater vocabulary growth whilst females showed greater reading comprehension. The qualitative findings from interviews and surveys based on the TAM indicated that the use of AI would provide greater learner autonomy, reduce cognitive load for learners, and be highly motivated to continue using AI, with ethical usage as a key factor. The results showed that the use of AI in education, guided by ethical principles, can effectively enhance learning outcomes, as evidenced by a 30
English proficiency is an important factor in graduate employability in Malaysia, yet perceived gaps between university training and workplace communication demands continue to affect professional readiness. While employer perspectives on these gaps are well documented, less is known about how students themselves conceptualise workplace English, interpret feedback, and navigate psychological barriers. This study addresses that gap through a qualitative exploration of 137 Malaysian graduates from diverse disciplines, using an open-ended survey to capture their experiences and recommendations. Thematic analysis suggested three interrelated perceived barriers. First, the Language Readiness Gap reflects a perceived misalignment between academic English instruction and authentic workplace communication needs, particularly in speaking and professional writing. Second, the Confidence Ceiling highlights students’ reported anxiety, low self-efficacy, and hesitation in using English despite perceived language knowledge, pointing to psychological dimensions of employability. Third, the Feedback Disconnect illustrates how vague or non-actionable guidance from employers may undermine learning and reinforce uncertainty. Students consistently identified spoken English as the primary employability skill, supported by professional writing and listening, and recommended workplace simulations, interactive learning, and stronger academia–industry partnerships. Framed by Communicative Competence Theory, the study proposes an exploratory student-centred model of employability barriers with implications for curriculum reform, feedback practices, and policy development.
This study examined whether ChatGPT-assisted speaking practice could strengthen English as a Foreign Language speaking development in an IELTS preparation context. Sixty-five intermediate Iranian learners participated in a ten-week quasi-experimental intervention, with one group receiving structured ChatGPT-supported speaking practice and a comparison group receiving teacher-led instruction. Learner performance was assessed through IELTS-aligned speaking tasks and analyzed using complexity, accuracy, and fluency indicators. The findings showed a clear pedagogical advantage of ChatGPT-assisted practice for syntactic complexity and fluency, while accuracy improved over time in both groups without a distinct between-group advantage. These results suggested that large language model-based interaction could create conditions that encouraged longer turns, richer language production, and faster speech delivery, particularly when learners received sustained opportunities for low-pressure, adaptive oral practice beyond limited classroom speaking time. At the same time, the pattern for accuracy indicated that generative AI should be integrated as a complement to, rather than a replacement for, teacher guidance, especially for form-focused feedback. The study contributed evidence from an underrepresented EFL context and supported a blended instructional model in which ChatGPT expanded speaking opportunities, promoted learner autonomy, and enhanced key dimensions of oral performance within communicative language teaching.
This mixed-methods, design-based study examined the co-design of an educational launchpad for supporting transferable linguistic proficiency among adult university-affiliated learners of French as a Foreign Language (FLE). Grounded in Service Design and operationalised through Action Research cycles, the intervention treated language learning as a service journey in which learners functioned as co-design partners rather than passive recipients of instruction. Fifty-eight Egyptian adult FLE learners (N = 58; CEFR A2-B1) participated in an eight-week implementation organised around Discovery, Define/Ideate, Develop/Prototype, and Deliver/Evaluate phases. Pretest-posttest outcomes were assessed using a 25-point French proficiency performance test (FLE-PP) and an 8-item Self-Perceived Communication Competence scale (SPCC). Participants showed higher posttest scores on both outcomes, with FLE-PP means increasing from 10.22 to 18.36 and SPCC means increasing from 2.20 to 4.13. Because the study used a one-group pretest-posttest design, these gains are interpreted as changes associated with the launchpad implementation rather than as definitive causal effects. The qualitative sub-corpus of 18 paired participant accounts, user stories, and workshop artifacts showed a movement from a perceived linguistic wall toward artifact-based agency, with participants using scripts, visual maps, simulators, and peer support to navigate institutional encounters. The integrated interpretation suggests that co-designed artifacts and socially validated rehearsal may help learners convert classroom knowledge into usable communicative resources, although replication with a comparison condition and stronger measurement evidence is required.
Modal verbs (can, could, may, might, will, would) pose a persistent challenge for both learners and educators despite substantial scholarly exploration of the topic. Using an extensive dataset comprising 2,800 essays, this study investigates the variability in the use of modals among English first language (L1) speakers and second language (L2) learners from Asian backgrounds, focusing on the modals can and would. A comparative analysis of collocational patterns identifies these modals as a major source of divergence between the L1 and L2 groups, notably the prevalent use of the negated form of can and the skewed and restricted use of would among L2 learners. Further, while L1 speakers typically employ would to assert the validity of statements with evidence believed to be indisputable, L2 learners tend to use it when presenting opinions with little or no support. The findings identify specific areas requiring pedagogical interventions for L2 learners, and from a methodological perspective, underscore the importance of complementing corpus-driven results with qualitative analyses when seeking to understand the contextual uses of modals. The integration of qualitative and quantitative approaches is a vital step in formulating effective pedagogical strategies to enhance L2 learners’ pragmatic proficiencies.
Oral corrective feedback (OCF) is widely recognised as a key pedagogical mechanism in the development of second language speaking proficiency; however, existing research has largely examined OCF in controlled settings or focused on isolated feedback types, offering limited insight into how feedback is interpreted, negotiated, and enacted within authentic classroom interaction. Addressing this gap, this qualitative study examines how cognitive, social, and affective processes shape teachers’ and students’ experiences of feedback in Chinese university English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom. Rather than treating OCF as a purely technical corrective move, the study conceptualises it as a relational and context-sensitive pedagogical process. Drawing on interactionist and sociocultural perspectives, the study investigates the perspectives of 12 university English teachers and 24 undergraduate students across fluency- and accuracy-oriented speaking tasks. Data were generated through semi-structured interviews, non-participant classroom observations, and stimulated-recall sessions, and analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. The findings indicate that OCF is understood not merely as a technical response to linguistic error but as a relational pedagogical practice embedded in task demands, classroom norms, and interpersonal considerations. Teachers emphasised the strategic calibration of timing, explicitness, and scaffolding to support noticing and self-repair, while students foregrounded relational sensitivity, emotional safety, and face protection as conditions for meaningful engagement with feedback. Three interrelated tensions were identified: negotiating explicit correction alongside affective comfort, managing face and hierarchical relations during public feedback, and orchestrating teacher, peer, self-, and technology-supported feedback within everyday classroom activity. Overall, the study demonstrates that the effectiveness of OCF emerges from the dynamic coordination of cognitive, affective, and interactional factors rather than from isolated feedback techniques. The study contributes to EFL pedagogy in Asian higher education by offering a reconceptualised understanding of OCF as a relational, affect-sensitive, and contextually mediated process, with implications for designing task-sensitive and learner-responsive feedback practices.
One of the goals of educational institutions is to make students problem-solvers. Hence, they design various tasks and initiate extracurricular activities to support learners’ thinking skills. Argumentation skill is one part of thinking and problem-solving skills, which support learners’ creativity, innovation, persuasion, and academic performance. Thus, the purpose of this research was to examine the effects of dialogic pedagogy on STEM students’ argumentation skills and motivation in learning English language courses. The participants were Bahir Dar University Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) students. The study was designed through a quasi-experimental design, in which two groups were selected and assigned to different groups. The data were gathered through oral presentation, key informant interviews, observation, and questionnaire, and the quantitative data were analyzed through independent t-test, One-Way Manova, and Paired sample t-test, and the qualitative data were analyzed through narration. The data indicated that dialogic pedagogy had a great impact on STEM students’ argumentation skills and motivation. The experimental group outperformed the comparison group in their oral argumentation skills and employed a higher level of claim formulation, provided reasons and evidence, supported their arguments, and had audience awareness. The data also confirmed that the experimental group improved their motivation skills, which the instruction supported the learners’ emotional engagement, interest and taking intellectual risks, active participation, and collaboration. Therefore, the researcher suggested that dialogic pedagogy could be an alternative instructional methodology to improve learners’ argumentation skills and motivation in learning English language skills. Not applicable.
This study examined how refusal strategy use varied across proficiency levels among non-native learners of Arabic enrolled in an Arabic as a Foreign Language (AFL) program at the University of Ha’il, Saudi Arabia. Using a cross-sectional mixed-methods design, the study analyzed written Discourse Completion Test (DCT) responses from 65 international AFL learners distributed across four proficiency levels. Of the 780 responses initially elicited, 716 valid coded responses were retained after the exclusion of 64 blank, incomplete, illegible, or otherwise non-codable responses. Quantitative analysis classified refusals into three macro-categories—direct, indirect, and adjunct strategies—and summarized their distribution across levels. Results showed a clear proficiency-related pattern: lower proficiency learners relied more heavily on direct refusals, whereas higher proficiency learners used indirect strategies more frequently. A Pearson chi-square test indicated a significant association between proficiency level and refusal strategy category, χ²(6) = 37.051, p < .001, Cramér’s V = 0.161. Because each participant contributed multiple responses, this finding is interpreted as associational and descriptive rather than as strict participant-level inference. Qualitative descriptive analysis further identified three recurrent realization patterns: minimal-move refusals, supportive-move packaging through regret, gratitude, reasons, and alternatives, and the use of formulaic sociopragmatic routines as mitigation or stance. The findings suggest that increased proficiency was associated with greater use of supportive and relationally managed refusal forms. However, because the design was cross-sectional and no native-speaker baseline was included, the study does not claim developmental stages or native-like attainment. Pedagogically, the findings support the value of explicit pragmatics-focused practice in AFL instruction.
Oral assessment is a challenging issue as various factors may play a role in language learners’ production. Task repetition and task type are among factors that may influence oral performance. Previous studies have produced contradictory results about the effect of these two factors. Furthermore, such studies have only focused on one of these factors. Thus, it is yet unclear how these two factors may function in tandem to affect oral performance. The present study was, therefore, aimed at filling this gap. Thirty-two EFL learners carried out four tasks made by combining task repetition and task type: Monologue with exact repetition, dialogue with exact repetition, monologue with procedural repetition, and dialogue with procedural repetition. Four raters evaluated the participants’ speaking performance using the Common European Framework of Reference speaking scale, including descriptors of range, accuracy, fluency, interaction, and coherence. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to compare the participants’ performances across the four tasks. Results indicated no significant interaction effect for task repetition and task type on test takers’ performance after applying the Bonferroni adjustment. Additionally, the test takers received significantly higher scores on range and fluency when tasks involved exact repetition as opposed to procedural repetition. The findings further revealed that participants achieved significantly higher scores on accuracy in dialogue compared to monologue tasks. The findings hold implications for language teachers on how to use task types and task repetition in improving language learners’ oral production.
The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) in education has identified the need to understand how future educators perceive and engage with these technologies. This study investigates the AI self-efficacy of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) student teachers across three distinct educational contexts: Japan, Poland, and Slovakia. Recognising the crucial role of self-efficacy in technology adoption, this research aims to compare how pre-service teachers in these countries perceive their capabilities in utilising AI tools for language learning and teaching. The study employed a mixed-method design to collect quantitative data using a specifically designed evaluation scale and qualitative data via an open-ended questionnaire. The sample comprised 98 EFL student teachers from the selected countries. Results revealed observable differences in AI self-efficacy scores among participants from Japan, Poland, and Slovakia, with Japanese participants reporting higher confidence levels than their Polish and Slovak counterparts. The findings highlight a need for further research examining which contextual, educational, or experiential variables may underlie these cross-country differences.
English-medium instruction (EMI) has expanded rapidly in transnational higher education and has become an important site of second and foreign language learning in disciplinary contexts. Yet how EAP–EMI integration is related to students’ academic language experience and perceived academic success as an institutional learning condition remains underexplored. This study investigates the relationships among perceived EAP–EMI integration, academic language-related challenges, EMI-related self-efficacy, and perceived EMI academic success in a Sino–US transnational higher education programme. Survey data were collected from 405 undergraduate students with sustained EMI exposure and analysed using structural equation modelling. Results indicate that perceived EAP–EMI integration is strongly associated with lower academic language-related challenges and higher perceived EMI academic success. Academic language-related challenges function as an important experience-near mechanism linking institutional alignment to students’ evaluative outcomes. EMI-related self-efficacy is closely calibrated to experienced challenge and operates in a differentiated manner, indicating both facilitative and constraining associations with perceived academic success once institutional alignment and experienced challenge are taken into account. Overall, the findings support a process-oriented account of academic language learning in EMI contexts, highlighting how perceived academic success emerges from the interplay among institutional alignment, language-mediated academic experience, and students’ evaluative beliefs in second and foreign language education settings. Future research could extend this work through longitudinal, multi-site, and performance-based designs to examine more robustly how these relationships develop across different EMI contexts and stages of study.
Written interaction is a core component of foreign language development because it enables learners to negotiate meaning, respond to others, and refine linguistic knowledge in context. This study examined the effect of electronic chat (e-chat) on the development of written interaction skills among students in the Faculty of Education. To this end, the study developed a written interaction skills framework, a student activity booklet, a lecturer’s guide, and a written interaction test. Using a quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test control-group design, the study was conducted with second-year French as a Foreign Language students at Beni-Suef University. After the instructional intervention, quantitative analyses showed a statistically significant difference at the alpha = 0.01 level between the experimental and control groups on the post-test of written interaction in favor of the experimental group, with a large effect size. The experimental group also showed substantial gains from pre-test to post-test. These findings suggest that e-chat, when embedded in structured pedagogical tasks, can support the development of written interactional competence. The study concludes with pedagogical implications, limitations, and directions for future research.
Abstract Despite growing interest in Generative AI (GenAI) in language education, empirical evidence examining its pedagogical integration within project-based language learning and its influence on measurable learning outcomes remains limited. Many studies emphasize learner perceptions or short-term tool interaction rather than sustained classroom interventions grounded in instructional design. Addressing this gap, this explanatory sequential mixed-methods study investigated the extent to which participation in GenAI-supported collaborative PBLL was associated with changes in English language achievement and learner autonomy among EFL undergraduates. Participants were 53 Saudi female first-year university students assigned to experimental and control groups. Data were collected using parallel-form achievement tests, a researcher-developed learner autonomy questionnaire with exploratory construct validation, and thematic analysis of student reflections. Quantitative data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects modelling to examine differential change over time between groups. Results showed that GenAI-supported collaborative projects were associated with greater gains in overall English achievement, particularly in writing, vocabulary, and total scores compared with traditional instruction. Grammar improvement occurred in both groups, suggesting general course progression rather than a differential intervention effect. Learner autonomy development was also significantly greater in the experimental group across dimensions, with especially strong growth in motivation and self-regulation. Qualitative findings suggested that collaborative engagement, peer interaction, and GenAI-mediated scaffolding supported strategic learning behaviors, confidence, and reflective awareness, while highlighting challenges related to digital literacy, tool selection, and potential over-reliance on AI outputs. Overall, findings suggest that GenAI-supported PBLL may contribute to language development and autonomy when embedded within structured and socially mediated learning environments.
Abstract The rapid expansion of English-Medium Instruction (EMI) programs and the growing demand for English language proficiency have introduced significant motivational challenges for EFL learners who face linguistic barriers. Artificial intelligence (AI) tools offer a potential solution by providing personalized scaffolding and interactive support. This study conducts a network meta-analysis (NMA) of 16 empirical studies (N = 1,923) to compare the effectiveness of three AI interventions, including Generative AI Chatbots, AI Writing Assistants, and AI Language Learning Applications, on the learning motivation of K-12 and university EFL students in English instruction contexts. Results indicate that all AI tools significantly outperform traditional instruction. AI Language Learning Applications (g = 0.907, k = 2) showed the largest effect, followed by Generative AI Chatbots (g = 0.824, k = 11) and AI Writing Assistants (g = 0.692, k = 3). These findings suggest that interactive and adaptive AI tools are particularly effective in fostering motivation by fulfilling students' basic psychological needs of autonomy and competence. The study provides evidence-based recommendations for the strategic integration of AI into English instruction curricula to optimize student engagement and academic success.
This study explores the perceptions of pre-service English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in Türkiye regarding the integration of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) into English language teacher education. Employing a quantitative research design, data were collected from 150 pre-service teachers (PSTs) to examine their awareness of AI technologies, perceived impacts on language learning, and acceptance of AI as a pedagogical tool. The findings provide a nuanced understanding of how pre-service teachers engage with AI in educational contexts and emphasise the need for thoughtful pedagogical integration of GenAI tools in teacher education programs. The study highlights the importance of structured, reflective initial teacher education that addresses both the technological affordances and ethical implications of AI use in the classroom. The study also underlines the gender equity in AI adoption, reinforcing that both male and female PSTs share similar levels of engagement with AI technologies. Additionally, results indicate gender parity in AI engagement, suggesting equitable adoption across male and female participants. This research contributes to the growing body of literature advocating for inclusive and responsible technology integration in education.
Corrective feedback is vital for second language development; however, its effectiveness in promoting immediate uptake versus long-term gains remains debated. This study employed a quasi-experimental design to compare the effects of prompts and recasts on the development of conditional sentences and relative clauses among 132 intermediate-level Arab EFL learners at four Jordanian universities. Participants were assigned to four groups, and their performance was measured via a pretest, an immediate posttest and a four-week delayed posttest. Data were analysed using paired and independent samples t-tests to evaluate accuracy gains, alongside Pearson correlation coefficients to examine the relationship between interactional responses and posttest scores. Findings indicated that prompts led to significantly higher rates of immediate uptake (86.1
The present study examined the impact of participation in an annual 60-h national in-service program called Building Blocks (BB), focusing on strengthening teacher knowledge of basic language constructs for teaching literacy in English as a foreign language (EFL). We employed an online questionnaire developed to evaluate teachers’ beliefs and self-reported practices regarding the teaching of reading and writing amongst 50 teachers who had participated in the BB program and 150 teachers who had not. Results using Mann–Whitney nonparametric tests and ordinal regressions indicated that BB participants reported greater confidence in using differentiated instruction methods for teaching literacy to children from diverse backgrounds than non-BB teachers (z = -2.83, p = 0.005). The BB participants also reported greater self-efficacy for teaching reading to students with diverse needs with higher frequency levels than non-BB teachers (z = -3.10, p = 0.002). These findings are significant because in order to differentiate instruction and teach students with diverse needs, a teacher must possess a particular skill set that includes awareness of different English ability levels and knowledge about how to match instructional methods to individual student literacy needs. The current results highlight the potential of participation in a professional development program focusing on literacy acquisition for EFL teachers.
Personality effects in English as a foreign language (EFL) studies are often read from zero-order correlations even though Big Five traits and classroom outcomes are both intercorrelated. Using data from 103 first-year Vietnamese EFL students, this study examines whether such bivariate readings can obscure suppression-compatible patterns. Students completed the BFI-44 and a classroom-adapted inventory of group, individual and kinesthetic preferences, together with a collaboration-oriented self-regulated learning scale. Simultaneous five-trait regressions yielded two notable r → β divergences. Agreeableness was essentially unrelated to individual preference at the zero-order level (r ≈ .02) but became negative after the other four traits were controlled (β ≈ − .15). Neuroticism showed the complementary pattern for group preference, moving from a near-zero bivariate association (r ≈ − .02) to a positive unique coefficient (β ≈ .17). Given the modest sample and self-report design, these results are interpreted as pattern-validating rather than parameter-final. The study’s contribution is therefore methodological as much as substantive: it shows why EFL personality research should report zero-order correlations, multivariate coefficients and sensitivity checks together rather than relying on bivariate associations alone.
Chunk learning has been crucial in English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learning. This study introduces comparative continuation tasks into chunk learning, exploring whether it can promote chunk learning efficiency. This study adopts an experimental approach which collects quantitative data to assess students’ chunk learning performance. Sixty-two Chinese college students as EFL learners took part in this research. We compared the impact of different chunk learning tasks on acquiring verbal chunks, nominal chunks, discourse chunks and idiomatic chunks in continual phases. The results indicate that (1) comparative continuation tasks yield better chunk learning output than repetitive translation, cloze and recitation; (2) chunk learning develops in an accumulative and dynamic way, and comparative continuation tasks constantly promote chunk learning after several rounds; (3) comparative continuation tasks provide a scaffold for EFL learners to use and imitate. Comparative continuation tasks successfully trigger an alignment effect which bridges the gap between chunk learning and chunk use, and their interaction is strengthened after several rounds of comparative continuation tasks. The proposed comparative continuation tasks complement the current chunk learning methods.
