This chapter applies a multi-stakeholder policy perspective to discuss the implications of the recently proposed European Union (EU) Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) in the context of facilitating mining processes to upscale lithium extraction in Europe. Utilising semi-structured interviews to gather insights from relevant stakeholders along the lithium value chain, this chapter presents significant findings concerning the relocation of lithium extraction within the EU, as mandated by the CRMA. This relocation entails complex socio-economic and environmental trade-offs while also contributing to the realisation of the objectives outlined in the EU Green Deal. A key contribution of our study is the identification of essential policy recommendations for the effective management and preservation of resources within the EU, supporting sustainable production and consumption in both the short and long term. These recommendations aim to balance the economic benefits of resource extraction with the imperative of environmental sustainability, providing a valuable framework for policymakers and stakeholders in navigating the complexities of resource management in the EU.
Chapter 8 examines the challenges and innovative strategies involved in urban recycling, specifically within Denver, Colorado’s densely populated multi-family complexes. It highlights the region’s struggle with low recycling rates, exacerbated by socio-economic disparities, regulatory hurdles, and technical challenges. The chapter emphasises the importance of holistic approaches to waste prevention and landfill diversion, showcasing the broad benefits of recycling for environmental conservation, economic growth, and social progress. The concept of collaborative design for developing tailored recycling strategies is explored through case studies. The chapter proposes tailored strategies to boost recycling participation, overcoming obstacles such as space limitations, waste segregation issues, and diverse resident populations. Comprehensive case studies suggest a pathway towards sustainability by integrating economic benefits, environmental protection, and social well-being, advocating for enhanced governance and stakeholder engagement to navigate urban recycling complexities.
Sustainable waste management requires significant increases in the proportion of waste and its components being reused, repurposed, and recycled instead of landfilled. Recent research and regulations have supported growing interest in circular economies, with a significant focus on making waste management processes more cyclic, increasing reuse, and reducing disposal. Resource recovery of nutrients and metals from municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants and other sources of sludges may relieve the depletion of essential elements and have significant environmental and economic benefits. Thermal technologies offer strong promise for combining resource recovery with the robust destruction of hazardous compounds that must be removed from a circular economy. Applied smouldering is an emerging thermal technology that has demonstrated unique benefits in managing challenging wastes, such as high-moisture-content biomass, in a self-sustaining manner with minimal energy footprint and limited pre-processing infrastructure. Therefore, smouldering can support the inclusion of challenging wastes into circular economies. Most relevant applied smouldering studies to date have focused on municipal wastewater treatment sludge (i.e., sewage sludge). Therefore, this chapter will focus largely on the application of smouldering as a circular economy solution for sewage sludge; however, its applicability can be extended to a wide range of carbon-rich waste materials.
This chapter explores two hazards confronting the Australian coal mining sector: spontaneous combustion and explosions. The section dedicated to spontaneous combustion offers an overview of the chemical, physical, and environmental variables contributing to this risk. It also discusses the monitoring techniques commonly used in underground operations to detect the products of spontaneous combustion. The analysis of explosion risks delves into types, root causes, and preventative measures. This work serves as an overview for professionals, policymakers, and researchers by providing insight into the challenges of coal self-heating events and gas monitoring in Australian underground coal mines.
This chapter explores the intricate interplay between sustainability challenges in the mineral resource sector, the evolving concept of the circular economy, and the implications of population growth. It delves into the environmental, social, and economic dimensions, aiming to provide insights into the complexities and potential solutions at the nexus of these critical global issues. The extraction and processing of minerals are fundamental to modern technology and infrastructure. To mitigate the environmental impact of increased consumption, it is crucial to adopt circular design principles and promote the use of durable, repairable, and recyclable products. Sustainability in the mining sector requires a comprehensive approach that considers social, economic, and environmental factors. Collaboration among governments, industry stakeholders, and communities is vital to addressing present and future challenges. The mineral resource sector can support global development while safeguarding the planet by integrating sustainable practices, embracing technology, and prioritising ethics. We have interpreted the problem from an engineering perspective, devising a blueprint for an (un)sustainable machine model that explains the relationship between the demand, consumption, and recycling of minerals and Earth’s planetary boundaries. The (un)sustainable machine model hides a significant truth. While there is no doubt that human activities impact Earth’s planetary boundaries, it is difficult to see how any of these impacts could be genuinely benign.
The concept of environmentalism has only existed within the policies of India since the 1990s. An economic growth agenda, growing urbanisation and industrialisation, and being one of the most populous countries in the world have led to significant increases in consumption in the country. These increases have caused significant environmental and socio-demographic impacts. If the current rate of consumption continues, by 2030, India will require 2.5 times more resources each year to meet its needs. The government has sought to address these challenges through various measures, including legislative actions and resource conservation initiatives. However, the complexity of the challenges, coupled with socio-demographic and socio-psychological factors, has resulted in rising consumption and production levels, which threaten the long-term sustainability of the consumption of natural resources in the country.
The world’s natural resources are threatened by a range of factors. These risks are especially felt by the most vulnerable in society. This chapter provides an overview of key global policies and national laws that address the challenges faced by the unsustainable consumption of natural resources. It outlines key international organisations, such as the United Nations and the International Union for Conservation of Nature, as well as policies such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. The chapter concludes by examining some of the approaches that have been employed in various countries to successfully implement natural resources legislation.
Despite contributing minimally to global greenhouse gas emissions, the Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) region remains highly vulnerable to climate impacts, necessitating urgent action, particularly in sectors such as agriculture and land use. Sustainable finance is seen as crucial for achieving global decarbonisation goals, yet substantial investment gaps persist in the LAC region, urging accelerated and equitable flows of climate finance. An analysis of the region underscores the critical challenges and opportunities in tackling climate change, sustainable finance, land use change, and energy transition. Land use change, notably in agriculture and forestry, poses significant threats to biodiversity and climate resilience, necessitating a transition to sustainable practices. Energy transition in the region, while presenting challenges due to its reliance on fossil fuels, offers opportunities with the potential for clean energy sources and abundant critical minerals. Coordinated efforts across sectors and stakeholders, along with effective policies and frameworks, are essential for driving sustainable development, enhancing resilience, and ensuring equitable outcomes in the LAC region.
The annual global extraction of materials has been growing significantly from 22 billion tonnes at 7 tonnes per capita extraction in 1970 to 70 billion tonnes at 10 tonnes per capita extraction in 2010. The annual per capita material footprint for the Asia Pacific region, Latin America, the Caribbean and West Asia is between 9 and 10 tonnes, half that of Europe and North America. In contrast, Africa has an average material footprint of below 3 tonnes per capita. Global materials extraction has huge implications for achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the year 2030, principally SDG targets 8.4 ‘Resource productivity’ and 12.2 ‘Sustainable use of natural resources’. In the linear economy, raw materials are transformed into goods, used and finally turned into waste that is discarded. Circular economy concepts in tandem with the SDGs offer a way forward to address the issues of natural resource extraction, efficiency of resource use and climate change. This coordinated approach has been successful in countries where national legislation and policy frameworks have been developed and established. This study focuses on the role of national legislation, policy instruments and international standards in implementing the concepts of circular economy and sustainable development.
Cities across the world are paying attention to the circular economy agenda, as it is increasingly acknowledged that cities are the key drivers of sustainable consumption and are key in realising a green transition. Cities across the globe echo the following sentiments: it is time to accelerate; reduce; reuse; recycle; rethink. Cities are ready to replace current practices by adopting a circular, restorative approach where nothing is considered waste. For cities, the circular economy is a way to improve the quality of life of citizens by creating jobs and spurring innovation while reducing resource needs. A circular economy makes business sense by using new and emerging technology to create opportunities for innovation and the development of new products and production techniques. This chapter examines how the entire supply chain, guided by municipalities, can work to drive a circular economy transition. Areas of action and different approaches are tested by which municipalities can address and adopt a circular economy mindset. Examples of specific circular economy experiences are showcased, with initiatives at district and area levels as exemplars to demonstrate how cities across the global can engage in concrete circular economy best praxis.
The rate of progress towards meeting the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the target date of 2030 has slowed substantially, affected especially by the COVID-19 pandemic. Investment in SDGs is underfunded, while the contributions of both the public and private sectors are still overwhelmingly directed towards the linear economy. Developed economies and stable polities score well overall relative to challenged economies and unstable regions, exacerbated by chronic underinvestment in low- and middle-income countries. Although originating from different starting principles, the concepts of sustainable development and of the circular economy have many features in common, such that the latter has direct relevance to a number of SDGs. However, the circular economy as currently defined and applied is a necessary but not sufficient condition to achieve the SDGs, requiring supporting systems to action and optimise the social and environmental agendas. The challenge is to embed all three sustainability pillars into a formal, consistently applied operational circular economy framework. There are encouraging signs of convergence, though a robust theoretical assimilation and underpinning of the two concepts has yet to be attempted. The extent of integration will determine how and with what speed the circular economy will be systematically applied to achieving the SDGs.
Plastics are ubiquitous in the global economy. However, their benefits must be offset against the harm caused by a throw-away culture and poor waste management practices. This tension is apparent in the key role played by plastics in public health safeguarding during the COVID-19 pandemic, set against the significant generation of plastic residues, accompanied by an increase in water pollution due to their incorrect disposal. The Scopus database was interrogated to identify literature on the role of plastics in achieving the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Bibliometric analysis and mapping indicated that the principal keywords were as follows, in order of frequency of occurrence: circular economy, sustainability, COVID-19, plastic pollution, life cycle assessment, waste management, environment, microplastics, plastic waste, and sustainable development. Despite contributing to the achievement of at least 15 SDGs, overall, pollution caused by plastics (principally marine pollution) outperformed the totality of their positive roles in achieving the SDGs. However, the study also highlighted the fundamental role of the circular economy with strategies such as reduction, recycling and service life extension as potential solutions to the socio-environmental problems that plastics may cause, and as a key ally in achieving the SDGs, principally SDGs 3, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15.
The rising generation of municipal solid waste has led to global environmental problems such as open dumping, uncontrolled incineration, marine pollution and global warming. In order to overcome these problems and to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically SDG 12 (Responsible production and consumption), the concept of a circular economy has gained attention. The role and responsibility of consumers in a circular economy society is crucial to conserve resources and consume environmentally friendly products. In order for consumers to realise responsible consumption, strategies in each stage of the circular economy such as purchasing, waste reduction and reuse, and collection for recycling of waste must be established. Strategies for responsible consumption at the purchasing stage include legal restrictions, economic measures and promotion of appropriate consumption practices. At the discharge stage for waste reduction and reuse, a Volume-based Rate System (VBRS) and separate discharge system can be implemented. Since consumers in island regions may not be able to properly discharge waste, an appropriate collection system must be established to fulfil consumer responsibilities. For these strategies to succeed, six factors should be considered: clear policy targets, allocation of responsibilities by stakeholders, awareness, transparency of information, communication and building infrastructure.
Rapid urbanisation coupled with poor waste management practices has led to biowaste accumulating in landfills and dumpsites in cities, far from the agricultural soils that it could fertilise. The mismanagement of biowaste is leading to the depletion of soils, pollution of water courses and emission of greenhouse gases. Meanwhile, the use of synthetic fertilisers is resulting in severe depletion of soil microbiology and causing almost irreversible damage to ecosystems. Biowaste is an abundant source of nutrients and energy that is available wherever humans live. By collecting biowaste separately to other non-biological wastes and managing it according to the waste hierarchy and circular economy principles, its contribution to achieving the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is broad and significant, especially in relation to SDGs 2, 12, 13 and 15, with contributions to a number of others. This chapter discusses the potential of the circular bioeconomy to protect public health, strengthen the global food supply, reduce energy poverty and decelerate anthropogenic climate change.
Design is integral to human activity and has been practised since humans first made tools to fulfil specific functions. It was formalised during the first industrial revolution; since then it has evolved to become a multidisciplinary profession. Before, the industrial revolution products and buildings were ‘circular’ by default. However, the development of synthetic and composite materials, and product and component miniaturisation, has encouraged linear economic practices in design and manufacture. This has raised concern in the European Union about rising waste, demand on resources, and risk to supply. In this chapter we explore the role of design in the value chain through four industrial sectors and discuss their evolution to understand the potential for circularity and the extent to which design can influence and contribute to circular practice and sustainable development goals now and in the future.
Adoption of the circular economy (CE) in the construction and built environment sector has the potential to improve the sector’s environmental performance, enabling economic and social benefits across communities and regions, ultimately to facilitate achievement of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The incorporation of CE strategies builds on multidimensional elements across the life cycle of construction projects, including efficient design; product longevity through regular repair and maintenance, and with the use of durable materials; reuse, recycling, and remanufacture of components and resources from obsolete buildings; and designing for disassembly. The adoption of a CE has a direct positive impact on SDGs 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, and 17. The remaining seven SDGs are impacted indirectly by CE practices, for example by generating more employment opportunities, resulting in economic development with concomitant social benefits. To further embed CE and closed-loop practices requires supporting initiatives: stakeholder coordination across the supply and value chains, capacity building and knowledge sharing among different stakeholders, using material flow analysis or material stock assessment for traceability information on resources across the life-cycle stages of different structures, and deploying artificial intelligence (AI) or blockchain technology for resource modelling, with life-cycle assessment techniques applied to minimize overall environmental impacts.
Low- and Middle-income Countries (LMICs) rest at the lower end of the waste management developmental scale: self-managed waste, uncontrolled dumping and open burning, limited treatment facilities, weaker institutions and governance, and a low priority for financing. Conversely, many indicators are better in LMICs than in the Global North – lower consumption, lower levels of waste arisings, higher recycling rates and a productive informal reuse and repair sector – characteristics of sustainable resource use and of value retention/creation in a circular economy. Striving towards the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDGs 1, 6, 8, 11 and 12 is, among other enablers, contingent on developing sustainable waste and resource management systems based on the principles of the circular economy. The developmental challenge in LMICs is to formalise and strengthen infrastructure, institutional capacity and waste retribution systems, while retaining the LMIC’s existing circular economy characteristics – decoupling waste generation, incorporating the informal sector, improving skills and education, and maintaining a thriving repair and reuse sector. Concomitant benefits include raised living standards, improved public health, decent and inclusive employment and prevention of environmental discharges. Case studies from Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria, India and Indonesia identify where meaningful interventions can be made, fundamental to enjoying the wider benefits of a circular economy.
The rate of progress towards meeting the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the target date of 2030 has slowed substantially, affected especially by the COVID-19 pandemic. Investment in SDGs is underfunded, while the contributions of both the public and private sectors are still overwhelmingly directed towards the linear economy. Developed economies and stable polities score well overall relative to challenged economies and unstable regions, exacerbated by chronic underinvestment in low- and middle-income countries. Although originating from different starting principles, the concepts of sustainable development and of the circular economy have many features in common, such that the latter has direct relevance to a number of SDGs. However, the circular economy as currently defined and applied is a necessary but not sufficient condition to achieve the SDGs, requiring supporting systems to action and optimise the social and environmental agendas. The challenge is to embed all three sustainability pillars into a formal, consistently applied operational circular economy framework. There are encouraging signs of convergence, though a robust theoretical assimilation and underpinning of the two concepts has yet to be attempted. The extent of integration will determine how and with what speed the circular economy will be systematically applied to achieving the SDGs.
The various consumer products that we use in our everyday life contain a large variety of chemicals, both intentionally added and unintentionally present. Humans can be exposed to these chemicals via different pathways. Assessing human exposure to chemicals in consumer products is complex, considering the thousands of chemicals involved in thousands of products used according to various usage patterns and by different users. In the present chapter, we first give an overview of exposure to chemicals in consumer products, including the nature of the problem, how it is addressed in different regulatory contexts, and the status of exposure assessment in various frameworks including risk assessment, alternatives assessment and life cycle assessment. We then discuss how to best assess human exposure to chemicals in consumer products, and describe selected experimental and modeling methods to quantify these exposures. Next, we review the main facets of exposure to chemicals in specific consumer products, including spray products, building materials and furniture, children's toys, food contact materials, cleaning and home maintenance products, personal care products, textiles, and recycled materials. We finally explain how exposure results can be combined with chemical hazard information to evaluate human health impacts in different assessment frameworks, and give an outlook of future research needs.
Exposure to ionising radiation arising from natural sources is ubiquitous, but also highly variable. Furthermore, human activities can modify such exposures through the deliberate exploitation of radioactive materials or through the adventitious enrichment of naturally occurring radionuclides in wastes and by-products of various industries. In addition to this natural, albeit modified, background radiation, various civilian and military applications of nuclear fission have resulted in the distribution of a wide variety of artificially created radionuclides in the environment. Following a brief guide to radiation dosimetry, this chapter provides an overview of typical worldwide levels of exposure arising from natural background radiation and of the increased exposures that arise in some geographically restricted areas. This gives a context for describing industrial activities that can result in technologically enhanced concentrations of radionuclides, and hence increased exposures of local populations, and for summarising global and more localised exposures that arose from the testing of nuclear weapons. Exposures from routine and accidental releases from the nuclear fuel cycle are then discussed. Having provided an overview of environmental exposures, a review is conducted of various epidemiological studies that have been undertaken to determine if variations in environmental exposures can be linked to effects on human health. Some final thoughts are then provided suggesting lines of potential future research.
