Background: Vaccination is one of the most cost-effective public health interventions, preventing an estimated three to five million deaths annually worldwide (WHO, 2023). Nepal has achieved substantial progress through its National Immunization Program (NIP), supported by international partners including GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance (which has provided over USD 150 million since 2002), UNICEF, and WHO. Despite this progress, ensuring equitable vaccine access across geographically diverse and resource-constrained settings remains a persistent challenge. Nurses constitute the primary frontline workforce responsible for vaccine delivery across health facilities, outreach clinics, and large-scale national campaigns, yet their leadership contributions remain underexplored in the academic literature. Objective: To examine the multi-dimensional leadership roles of nurses within Nepal's immunization system, identify structural strengths and workforce challenges, and propose evidence-based policy recommendations for strengthening nursing-led immunization programs in low-resource settings. Methods: A narrative review was conducted of peer-reviewed literature, national policy documents, and reports from WHO, UNICEF, GAVI, and Nepal's Ministry of Health and Population (MoHP) relating to Nepal's NIP. Five key domains were analyzed: vaccine administration, cold chain management, community engagement, immunization surveillance, and health workforce dynamics. Results: Nurses perform central roles across all five domains. More than 27,000 health workers--predominantly nurses and Auxiliary Nurse Midwives--were deployed during Nepal's 2025 HPV vaccination campaign targeting over 1.46 million adolescent girls, supported by over 51,000 Female Community Health Volunteers (FCHVs). Nepal achieved 82.48% first-dose COVID-19 coverage. However, persistent challenges include health workforce shortages, limited competency-based immunization training, geographic barriers, vaccine hesitancy, and continued dependence on external donor funding. Conclusion: Nurses are the backbone of Nepal's immunization system and are indispensable for sustaining vaccination coverage in resource-constrained settings. Strengthening nursing competencies, expanding workforce capacity in underserved areas, and enhancing policy recognition of nursing leadership are essential to achieving the goals of the Immunization Agenda 2030 and Universal Health Coverage.
Gender-based violence (GBV) remains a critical social challenge in climate-vulnerable pastoral communities, where environmental stressors intersect with gender inequalities. The purpose of the study was to examine the Influence of climate change-driven scarcity of water resources on the prevalence of gender-based violence (GBV) among women in Matapato South, Kajiado County, Kenya. This study, grounded in Resource Scarcity and Conflict Theory, examined how climate change outcomes influence GBV against women in Matapato South Ward, Kajiado County, Kenya. Resource Scarcity and Conflict Theory frames how environmental shocks compromise social and household stability. The study targeted women and key stakeholders, including community elders, local administrators, healthcare workers, law enforcement officers, and NGO representatives addressing climate change and GBV, with a total population of 194 women and 62 stakeholders. Using Yamane’s formula, a sample of 131 women and 44 stakeholders was selected. Cluster and purposive sampling ensured balanced representation. Data were collected through structured questionnaires and key informant interviews. Quantitative data were analyzed descriptively, and qualitative data were analyzed thematically. Findings reveal strong theoretical and empirical links between climate stressors and GBV. 95.9% of respondents reported that drought-related water scarcity leads to household conflicts, reflecting how resource scarcity exacerbates gendered power tensions. The study concludes that climate-induced water, pasture, and food scarcity, along with migration, intensify GBV risks, including household disputes, emotional abuse, sexual violence, and exploitative relationships. These findings underscore the gendered security implications of climate change and the need for targeted interventions to reduce GBV, enhance community resilience, and protect women in pastoralist settings.
This study assesses groundwater quality and associated health risks in Dass Metropolitan, Bauchi State, Nigeria, using hydro-chemical analysis, multivariate statistics, and health risk models. A total of fifty (50) groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for physicochemical parameters. Thirty (30) samples were analyzed for heavy metal concentrations (Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, As), from which seventeen (17) representative samples with complete heavy metal data were selected for detailed evaluation using pollution indices and health risk assessment. Water Quality Index results indicate varying degrees of deterioration, with several locations classified as poor to unsuitable for drinking. Heavy metal concentrations, particularly Cd, Hg, and Pb, exceeded WHO guideline limits in multiple samples. Non-carcinogenic health risk assessment revealed hazard indices greater than one in several locations, indicating potential health concerns for local populations. Carcinogenic risk values were in the order of 10-3 under conservative assumptions (total chromium treated as hexavalent chromium), exceeding acceptable risk thresholds by two orders of magnitude. Principal Component Analysis extracted three components explaining 78.94% of total variance. The first component accounting for 41.80% represents anthropogenic salinity and nutrient enrichment from agricultural and domestic sources. The second component accounting for 24.80% reflects geogenic metal mobilization influenced by pH conditions. The third component accounting for 12.34% indicates lithology-controlled fluoride enrichment from basement rock weathering. The findings demonstrate combined anthropogenic and geogenic controls on groundwater quality and underscore the urgent need for regular monitoring and targeted mitigation strategies to protect public health.
Groundwater is the primary source of drinking and domestic water for many households in semi-urban communities in northern Nigeria. However, the siting of abattoirs within residential areas, combined with poor waste management practices, poses a serious threat to groundwater quality and public health. This study evaluated the impact of abattoir effluent discharge on groundwater quality in Potiskum Local Government Area, Yobe State, Nigeria. Three groundwater samples (A, B and C) were collected from wells and boreholes located 24.6 m, 47.8 m and 61.5 m, respectively, from the abattoir effluent discharge point. Physicochemical and microbiological parameters were analyzed using standard methods recommended by the American Public Health Association and the World Health Organization. Results showed that most physicochemical parameters, including turbidity (0.1–1.7 NTU), total dissolved solids (<1.31mg/L) and chemical oxygen demand (34.0–34.7mg/L), were within WHO permissible limits. However, pH values in samples B and C were slightly acidic, while biochemical oxygen demand (10.8–23.7mg/L) indicated significant organic pollution. Microbiological analysis revealed severe contamination, with coliform counts of >1600, 34 and 1100 MPN/100mL for samples A, B and C, respectively. Pathogenic bacteria including Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus were detected in all samples. The findings demonstrate that abattoir effluent has significantly compromised groundwater quality in the study area, rendering it unsafe for domestic use without treatment. Improved effluent management, routine groundwater monitoring and enforcement of sanitation regulations are therefore essential to protect public health and ensure sustainable water resources.
Climate change and its impact on the environment have caused many countries to rethink the way buildings are constructed, as cities have been experiencing extreme weather patterns like flooding. Building Regulations (BRs) can help to make buildings adaptable to climate change. Developed countries have come up with new energy codes while in developing countries little revision has been made to the current BRs. This study compared ten (10) countries in Africa (Zambia, Kenya, South Africa, Egypt, Nigeria, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Ghana, Botswana and Seychelles) to see how their BRs have been adapted to climate change. Using a comparative qualitative analysis of buildings’ structural integrity, lighting and ventilation, energy and sites, the results showed that few strategies to mitigate flooding, and high temperatures in buildings were considered. The countries where reviews were undertaken in the last 10 years (Kenya, Ghana, South Africa, Nigeria, Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Seychelles) had more consideration for sustainable strategies like solar photovoltaic panels, rainwater harvesting and use of landscape to control site temperatures. The use of compact designs, Energy efficient methods of lighting, ventilation and flood mitigation were missing in the BRs except for Seychelles. There is a gap in literature because most countries have not published their recent revisions. The current BRs address the structural soundness of buildings with no specific strategies for flood waters and excessive heat. This study is unique in that it identified shortfalls in the current BRs to mitigate climate change and specific strategies were identified that can be used to update the BRs.
