Purpose: The aim of this study was to assess the frequency of Kendrick extrication device (KED) use among rescuers and to analyse the current scientific evidence regarding its effectiveness and safety. The study was motivated by differences observed in recent years in the qualified first aid training programmes for State Fire Service (PSP) and Volunteer Fire Service (OSP) firefighters with regard to the use of this device Project and methods: The study was conducted between July 2022 and March 2026 among 210 firefighters, using a diagnostic survey with an original questionnaire distributed via Google Forms. The survey was addressed to firefighters serving in both professional and volunteer fire protection units. The questionnaire was disseminated through social media platforms and professional groups bringing together individuals involved in fire protection services. Responses concerning the frequency of Kendrick Extrication Device use, equipment availability, and subjective assessment of its usefulness in rescue operations were analysed. In addition, a review of the current scientific literature on the effectiveness, safety, and potential complications of the Kendrick extrication device in prehospital medicine was conducted using publications available in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Results: More than half of the surveyed rescuers reported not having used the Kendrick Extrication Device in practice while providing qualified first aid. A substantial proportion of respondents also indicated that this device was not available in the equipment of their rescue units. The most frequently reported reason for the device's limited use was the time required to apply it properly during patient extrication. Analysis of the available literature suggests that the use of spinal immobilisation devices in selected situations may be associated with a risk of complications and prolonged patient extrication time. Conclusions: The study findings indicate limited use of the Kendrick extrication device in rescue practice and low availability of this equipment in State Fire Service units. Respondents identified the time-consuming nature of device application during patient extrication as the main reason for abandoning its use. Current scientific evidence suggests that rapid patient extrication without this type of equipment may be a safe alternative in selected clinical situations. The results obtained may support the rationale for limiting the use of the Kendrick Extrication Device and highlight the need for further research into more intuitive and effective methods for patient extrication and stabilization. Keywords: Kendrick extrication device, traffic accident, casualty evacuation, spinal injury, prehospital medicine
Purpose: The purpose of the article is identification and practical presentation of real threats that could occur during the operation of energy storage systems. The article is in particular focused on a material and practical description of threats and technical measures, especially dedicated to fire protection, which may effectively prevent or mitigate the impact of these threats for people, property and the environment. Introduction: The themes of safety of energy storage systems, including fire safety, is extremely relevant in the context of the ongoing energy transition of our country. The need for a reliable discussion of this subject is indicated for example by the fact that in the context of the actual threat of using energy storage systems, in which lithium-ion batteries are used, dramatically different positions appear. The authors hope that the content of this article will be contribute to redirecting the discussion of the fire safety of energy storage systems to a field dominated by arguments based on objective empirical evidence. Methodology: The article is based on the analysis of literature of the subject, including legal regulations and international standards, scientific research results, as well as own results of full-scale empirical research on energy storage systems, in which emergency conditions were generated by varied scenarios. Conclusions: The improvement of the fire safety of energy storage systems requires strengthening the test, certification and regulation system for lithium-ion batteries. It is necessary to develop national technical regulations and detailed industry guidelines, including insurance matters, to refine the principles for the design, operation and fire protection of energy storage systems. The authors also see the need for extensive research on threats and safety measure effectiveness, as well as for publishing a guide for the facility users and rescue services, including practical guidelines for the design of such facilities, as well as for the response to incidents in facilities with a battery energy storage system (BESS). Keywords: fire safety, fire protection, energy storage, batteries, rechargeable batteries
Purpose: The purpose of the article is to analyse subversive operations in cyberspace. The author attempts to present cyberspace as operational environment, but also to define and organise the notions of subversion, sabotage and misinformation in the digital context. Introduction: The purpose of the study is the phenomenon of subversion in cyberspace as one of key components of contemporary hybrid conflicts. Based on the analysis of the literature of the subject and case analyses (e.g. attacks on the Ukrainian energy system), the author describes the notional framework of subversion, sabotage and misinformation, conducts an analysis in technical (malware operation), legal (the Tallinn Manual) and social (impact of misinformation on the society) terms. The article also discussed operational mechanisms of the MITRE ATT&CK framework and cybernetic models used to describe subversion in cyberspace. The article presents cyberspace as the fifth domain of armed operations, equivalent to land, sea, air and cosmos, which was formally confirmed i.a. in the documents of the Defence Department of the United States of America as early as in 2011. Cyberspace has become an area, in which non-kinetic operations – system disruption, sabotage, misinformation – may cause real consequences, comparable to traditional military operations. The author underlines that information is a strategic resource and manipulation has become a weapon. The classical understanding of subversion must be expanded to the digital environment. Subversion in cyberspace enables connecting simultaneous attacks technical infrastructure, information systems and social emotions. Methodology: The article used definition-notion analysis, legal analysis (in terms of sovereignty, cyberattack impact comparable to attacks with force, state responsibility for controlled or tolerated groups), system and operational analysis and the MITRE ATT&CK framework) and case studies (attacks on the Ukrainian energy system 2015–2022, ransomware WannaCry 2017 and attack on the BadeSaba app 2026). Conclusions: Due to the relatively low cost, scale of operations and difficulty of attributing the attack, digital subversion has dominated traditional forms of sabotage and misinformation. It is a control system process that accompanier hybrid operations. A cyberattack may cause impact equivalent to the use of force, while misinformation can be as destructive as technical sabotage. Keywords: cyberspace, misinformation, subversion, sabotage, fire protection infrastructure
Purpose: The purpose of the article is to present the proposition of a modern medical doctrine for chemical, biological, radiation, nuclear and explosive (CBRNE) threats for Poland, focused on the emergency medical services and their connections with health protection, civil protection and civil defence. The proposed doctrine arranges priorities and compromises in relation to activities under the conditions of uncertainty, time pressure and limited resources. Introduction: From a medical perspective, the primary task is to quickly identify the consequences of an incident and to initiate protection and treatment activities even if the cause of the incident is yet to be clearly determined. The course of care is influenced by: the need for personal protection equipment, the decontamination process and the risk of secondary exposure. The effectiveness of system response is in addition limited by information pressure (including contradictory reports, misinformation and communication overload), as well as disruption of infrastructure and communication (which may destabilise health protection operations regardless of the number of victims). In that perspective, the article presents emergency medical services as an integral part of the public safety, civil protection and civil defence system that requires interoperability and coordinated cooperation with the national rescue and firefighting system and other CBRNE crisis response entities. Methodology: The article is conceptual in nature and based on a focused narrative review with thematic synthesis. The starting point was the analysis of literature and expert materials in a work repository comprising 308 items from 2020–2025. Following a multi-stage selection, sources of highest operational and medical usability and credibility were included in the qualitative analysis and synthesis. The publications covered medical rescue and hospital operations under CBRNE threats, mass incidents and patient care organisation and coordination. Works unrelated to the medical or operational dimension were excluded. On that basis, thematic categorisation was conducted and ten pillars were introduced as areas of critical capabilities determining the feasibility of medical operations. Conclusions: The proposed doctrine consists of ten pillars of feasibility of medical operations for CBRNE incidents, related to risk identification, personnel safety, operational effectiveness, coordination, information and detection, care continuity, logistics, cooperation, education, risk communication and social resilience. This framework is a starting point for the development of strategies, minimum performance standards and readiness criteria and then their testing and further validation. Keywords: emergency medical services, medical doctrine, CBRNE threats, state readiness, crisis response, civil protection and civil defence, crisis management
Purpose: The purpose of this publication is to analyse legal regulations and present best practices for managing the space around buildings located near forests or other green areas. Introduction: Progressive urbanisation near forests and agricultural areas creates a contact zone known in the literature as the wildland-urban interface (WUI). Disturbances caused by variable climatic conditions, including prolonged periods without rain, are becoming increasingly common. These conditions facilitate fire ignition, which can exhibit dangerous combustion dynamics. Such phenomena can lead to catastrophic fires, resulting in the destruction of buildings and linear infrastructure. In Poland, most buildings have concrete structures and non-flammable roof coverings, which theoretically increase their fire resistance. However, the development of buildings adjacent to forests, combined with improper vegetation management or a lack of thoughtful landscaping, creates a real risk of significant material losses. In the event of a fire in forest areas, the fire can spread into urban areas not only through the continuity of plant fuel but also via wind-blown embers. To minimise economic losses and increase residents' safety, it is essential to properly design so-called defensive zones around buildings. Methodology: A literature review of publicly available documents and legal regulations examined best practices and guidelines for managing the space around residential buildings near forests. The document analysis focused on selected countries where the issue of fires at the interface between forests and human settlements has been studied for many years. Conclusions: Properly shaping the space around buildings and maintaining supporting infrastructure, including the removal of dead plant matter, increases fire safety in urban areas. Implementing standards for managing the space around buildings can enhance the effectiveness of property protection in the event of fires in adjacent forests or agricultural areas. To improve fire safety, it is necessary to raise awareness among land managers regarding the proper management of vegetation and the placement of garden infrastructure elements. Failure to act in this area can result in significant property losses if fires occur in non-urbanised areas and spread to urban areas. Keywords: safety of buildings, spatial planning, wildfires, defensive zone
