The article's purpose is to introduce the reader to key concepts and models of family stress that family scientists have identified and developed. I describe process models of individual and family stress. I provide definitions for critical concepts in family stress theory and research and introduce the work of a number of contributors to family stress theory development: Hill and other early theorists, Antonovsky, Boss, Burr, Patterson, and the McCubbins. Measurement of stressors is addressed by examining instruments commonly used to tap stressors at the (a) micro level (daily hassles and uplifts), (b) meso level (life events), and (c) macro level (traumatic life events). I also consider the use of multiple indicators of stressors. I conclude with a description of commonly used individual- and family-level stress manifestation measures and discuss salutogenic paradigms of health.
A majority of the studies that examine stress in African American families address low-income, single-mother families. This limitation sharply constrains our understanding of the fuller range of African American experience because many African American families are not single-mother families. Based on qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews with sixteen marriage-based African American families (N = 32; 16 mothers and 16 fathers) from four regions of the United States, this paper offers a rare, in-depth look at the challenges and experiences of marriage-based black families. Key themes include: (a) stress in the workplace, (b) stress in balancing work and family, and (c) family-related stress. Interview data that illustrate and support each of these themes and several related sub-themes are presented and implications are discussed.
ABSTRACT This study investigated the moderating role of social support (i.e., “having anyone to count on”) on the relationship between male youths' exposure to violence and other stressful life events and their violent behavior. Self-report interviews from a nationally representative sample of male adolescents aged 12 to 17 and their caretakers were used to assess youths' lifetime exposure to violence (i.e., being a victim and/or witness to physically abusive punishment, physical assault, sexual assault, and witnessing violence), past-year stressful life events (i.e., the loss of positively valued stimuli and the blockage of positively valued goals), levels of social support, and their violent offending behavior. Having someone to count on buffered the impact of being a victim of physical abuse and witnessing violence on violent offending. Potentially confounding variables, such as age, race/ethnicity, social class, family structure, geographic location, negative affect, and delinquent peer exposure were controlled. These findings underscore the significant role that social support may have on decreasing the likelihood that adolescent males who experienced trauma would engage in violent offending. Implications for intervention and suggestions for future research are discussed.
This study examined the relationships among family resource losses, family coping, social support, family stresses and strains, and psychological distress following a 6.7 magnitude earthquake in Northridge, California. The project includes a control group of persons living in a city that did not experience the earthquake. One month after the event, 301 participants (118 men, 183 women) completed a questionnaire asking about demographics, family coping, family stresses and strains, social support network, resource loss, and symptoms associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD symptoms were associated with being female, family strains, resource loss (especially personal characteristic and energy), and depression. Participants experiencing the earthquake had higher distress levels than those in the control group who did not experience the earthquake. Implications and future research directions are discussed.
Educational materials and programs disseminated through the Cooperative Extension Services in each state serve as resources to help people understand stress and to reduce their stress levels. This meta-analysis references information provided by the Cooperative Extensions Services that can be accessed by anyone in any state: educators, practitioners, general public. The Cooperative Extension Service systems “extend” their resources, solving public need with college or land-grant university resources through non-formal non-credit programs (USDA CSREES, 2004). Reports from Cooperative Extension Service indicate work with audiences in stress topics primarily related to 1) parenting; 2) divorce, separation and co-parenting; 3) grandparenting and aging; and 4) joblessness, disaster and trauma. Finding that information is often difficult as contact information for each state Cooperative Extension Service appears to vary from state to state and county to county. An attempt to remedy this is the impending development of eXtension, a coordinated, internet-based information system.
The present study examined tensions generated by business issues for 187 family business-owning wives and husbands over a period of time. Family and business goal ranking identified the first priority goal of business owners (husbands) as positive reputation with customers and of wives (household managers) as good family relationships. The tension questions reflect the five conflict content areas of justice, role clarity, work/family balance, identity, and succession. Work/family and justice conflicts were the highest tension producers for both spouses in each time period. About 20% of wives and husbands reported higher work/family conflict in 2000 over 1997. Five out of seven business tensions statistically reduced from 1997 to 2000 for wives; three out of seven statistically reduced for husbands. Family FIRO model is proposed as an assessment and problem-solving model for working with family businesses. KEYWORDS: business-owning couplesconflictfamily businessesfamily conflictfamily FIRO Notes Note. ∗p < .05 = statistical difference between 2000 and 1997. a p < .05 = statistical difference between wives and husbands; is located at smaller of two means. Note. a p < .05 = statistical difference between wives and husbands; stars are located at smaller of two means. This study reports results from the Cooperative Regional Research Project, NE-167R, "Family Businesses: Interaction in Work and Family Spheres," partially supported by the Cooperative States Research, Education and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the Experiment Stations at University of Hawaii at Manoa, University of Illinois, Purdue University (Indiana), Iowa State University, Michigan State University, University of Minnesota, Montana State University, University of Nebraska, Cornell University (New York), North Dakota State University, The Ohio State University, The Pennsylvania State University, Texas A & M University, Utah State University, The University of Vermont, University of Wisconsin–Madison, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (for The University of Manitoba).
Calming distressed infants is a topic of interest to all who provide care to the very young. The stress literature has indicated that both stress reactivity and regulation are of interest in examining stress. A review of literature was conducted to examine indicators of infant stress, correlates of infant stress, and methods of soothing distressed infants. Current research has provided an increasing ability to determine whether infants are experiencing stress, as indicators are not always obvious. Furthermore, observing infants while they are experiencing stress provides insights into individual differences with regard to stress reactivity and regulation at the earliest of ages. Such information provides insight to providing methods and effectiveness of soothing practices. Implications for parents and practitioners are explored.
ABSTRACT This study examined the impact of childhood sexual abuse upon implicit processing of intimacy-related stimuli in adulthood. Participants were 22 male and 20 female psychiatric inpatients ranging in age from 20 to 78 (M = 42). Each completed the Sexual Experiences Survey, a questionnaire derived from the Abuse Dimensions Inventory, and performed a modified emotional Stroop task in which they named the colors of neutral words, general threat words, and intimacy-related words. Contrary to prediction, the Sexually Abused group (n = 16) did not take significantly longer to color-name intimacy related words than the Non-abused group (n = 26), p = .70. However, there was a significant interaction between sexual abuse and gender (F = 6.45, p = .015). Sexually abused women performed faster than non-abused women, whereas abused men performed slower than non-abused men on the intimacy-related Stroop task. This effect retained significance even after controlling for participants' level of pathology (F = 4.80, p = .035). These results support the notion of implicit interference upon current functioning, and suggest gender differences in coping with sexual trauma.
The purpose of this study is to present the development of the Family Health Status Inventory (FHSI) (Norem, Malia, & Garrison, 2001 Norem , R. H. , Malia , J. A. , & Garrison , M. E. ( 2001 ). Family health status inventory . In B. F. Perlmutter , J. Touliatos , & G. W. Holden (Eds.), Handbook of family measurement techniques (Vol. 3 , pp. 384 – 385 ). Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage . [Google Scholar]), including estimates of its reliability and validity. The FHSI was developed as a parsimonious self-report, matrix-format, Likert-type assessment to measure the health status of families. The FHSI includes 16 items on which participants report for all family members. Following initial content validity appraisal and principal-components, reliability, and correlational analyses from two studies with different samples, we concluded that we had found support for the reliability and validity of the FHSI.
Substance abuse can have such a destructive impact on a family that it can both interrupt and transform the entire family's life. The impact of chronic illness on the family has been researched primarily from a stress-coping paradigm. Within the mental health literature, the impact of one family member's mental illness on other family members has begun to be investigated in a systema-tic and scientific manner. Within a stress-coping paradigm, the results of this empirical research have borne out the tremendous objective and subjective burdens placed on family caregivers (Biegel, Song, and Chakravarthy, 1994 Biegel , D. , Song , L. , & Chakravarthy , V. ( 1994 ). Predictors of caregiver burden among support group members of persons with chronic mental illness . In E. Kahana , D. Biegel , & M. Wykle (Eds.), Family caregiving across the lifespan . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage . [Google Scholar]; Lefley, 1996 Lefley , H. ( 1996 ). Family caregiving in mental illness . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage . [Google Scholar]). This article suggests that the impact of substance abuse on families may also be conceptualized within this paradigm and posits an evidence-based stress-coping model for conceptualizing this process.
Firefighters are at risk to be confronted with critical incidents and disasters. This study focused on the predictive value of these variables and their interaction effect for intrusions, avoidance reactions, and health problems among firefighters 18 months post-disaster (N = 639). Furthermore, the course of intrusions, avoidance reactions, and health problems in the period 2–3 weeks to 18 months post-disaster was assessed. Health problems were compared with those of non-affected firefighters (N = 132). Results showed that only disaster exposure and critical incidents accounted for a significant but small proportion of the variance (R 2 < .07) of intrusions, avoidance reactions and health problems among the affected firefighters. Health problems among affected firefighters did not decline in the period 2–3 weeks–18 months post-disaster, in contrast to intrusions and avoidance reactions. Health problems of both groups were comparable at T2. Results suggest that resilience in firefighters is rather high.
ABSTRACT This study investigated the measurement characteristics of the Multi-Problem Screening Inventory (MPSI) suicidal thoughts subscale. A sample of 542 responses to the MPSI was obtained and the responses on the suicidal thoughts subscale were analyzed using classical, Item Response, and Generalizability Theory methods. Results indicated that the MPSI suicidal thoughts subscale produced scores with very desirable measurement properties for use in 1) monitoring a client's change in suicidal ideation across time, and 2) making tentative decisions concerning the clinical significance of a client's suicidal thinking. The measurement error characteristics of the MPSI suicidal thoughts subscale scores reach a minimum very near the clinical cutting point and then remain relatively constant across the range of presumably clinically significant levels of suicidal thinking. The results of this study suggest that the MPSI suicidal thoughts subscale can be used by practitioners in a wide range of practice settings to identify, assess, and monitor their clients' problems with suicidal thinking.
This qualitative study explored therapeutic boundary processes during individual therapy from the perspectives of adult childhood sexual abuse survivors and therapists. Interviews exploring the context, process, and effects of negotiating boundaries were conducted with 11 survivors (8 female and 3 male) after or upon completing individual therapy, and with 11 therapists (8 female and 3 male) who were working with survivors other than those interviewed in this study. Participants reported that their abilities to negotiate boundary modifications were affected by personal beliefs, such as preconceived ideas about the utility of the boundary, and interpersonal relationships that impinge on both survivors' and therapists' capacities to refuse requests for boundary modifications. Although discussion between survivors and therapists about boundary decisions before they are made may not always preclude negative consequences, participants also stated that it is helpful to understand boundaries in the context of the therapeutic relationship. Implications for practice are discussed.
ABSTRACT Military veterans suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) often have comorbid conditions including obesity. They may become disabled either from these comorbid conditions or from PTSD (or from both). Service-connected disability (SCD) is a concept employed by both the Department of Defense and the Department of Veterans Affairs to identify and compensate military veterans with such disabilities. SCD could serve as a measure of the functional impact of PTSD and comorbid obesity and other medical conditions. We reviewed the database of the recently constituted PTSD program at Hunter Holmes McGuire Veterans Affairs Medical Center in Richmond, Virginia. Variables assessed included 1) age, 2) decade of life, 3) height, 4) weight, 5) sex, 6) race, 7) employment status, 8) presence or absence of comorbid psychiatric conditions, 9) presence or absence of comorbid medical conditions, and 10) degree of disability. From the height and weight measurements, we calculated body mass index (BMI). We used SCD to estimate degree of disability in terms of total disability (total SCD) and disability ascribed to PTSD (PTSD-SCD). Results indicated that the mean BMI of the study population was 30.3±5.7 kg/m2. This value was consistent with the current definition of obesity. 83.8% of our study population was either overweight or obese. This rate exceeded the US general population level of 64.5%. SCD and comorbid medical conditions had statistically significant relationships with obesity. Race was almost a statistically significant predictor of obesity. Decade of life, employment status and presence/absence of comorbid psychiatric condition did not separate the obese veteran from the non-obese veteran. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed statistical significant differences in BMI (df = 4, F = 2.921, p = 0.022)among various levels of SCD suggesting a threshold effect. PTSD-related SCD, however, did not have a significant relationship with BMI. The prevalence of overweight and obesity among our sample of veterans with PTSD exceeded current U.S. population rates. Comorbid medical conditions may predispose veterans with PTSD to obesity. SCD had a significant relationship with BMI in that there was a threshold effect in which 30% or greater SCD identified veterans with obesity. The cross-sectional nature of the study and the absence of control populations limit the conclusions that may be drawn from our study. Clearly, more definitive studies are needed with much larger study populations.
ABSTRACT This study examined the effectiveness of the Impact of Event Scale (IES; Horowitz, Wilner, & Alvarez, Citation1979) variables in detecting posttraumatic stress and physical symptoms in relevant groups of Gulf War veterans. A large sample of Gulf War veterans were administered the the IES, a semi-structured interview (PSS-I; Foa, Riggs, Dancu, & Rothbaum, Citation1993) on DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, Citation1994) criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and a Physical Symptom Questionnaire from the National Center for PTSD Patient Medical Information Checklist (1993). This study utilized four groups of veterans: 1) a reserve control group of participants who were in a reserve unit during the Gulf War but not deployed to the Gulf; 2) a Gulf War control group of veterans who were deployed to the Gulf War but did not report any symptoms of PTSD; 3) a subclinical group of Gulf War veterans who reported 1–5 DSM-IV criteria for PTSD; and 4) a group of Gulf War veterans who met DSM-IV criteria for PTSD. Group contrasts supported the hypothesis that IES scores would be significantly different in the expected clinical direction. Analyses also demonstrated significant relationships between IES scores and the number of DSM-IV symptoms of PTSD as well as the number of physical problems reported by these veterans. Keywords: impact of Event ScaleIESPTSDGulf Warveterans Notes Note. RC = Reserve Control group; GW-C = Gulf War Control group; PTSS = Post Traumatic Stress Symptoms group; PTSD = Post Traumatic Stress Disorder group; IES-AV = Impact of Event Scale-Avoidance; IES-INT = Impact of Event Scale-Intrusion; IES-TOT = Impact of Event Scale-Total; Phys Symp = Number of Individual Physical Symptoms (0–37) Reported in the National Center for PTSD Patient Medical Information Checklist (occuring within the last 30 days); n = 124; +Fischer PLSD. ∗p < .001 ∗∗p < .0001. Note. DSM-IV PTSD = Number of Individual DSM-IV Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Symptom Criteria in Category B, C, and D (0–17); Physical Symptoms = Number of Individual Physical Symptoms (0–37) Reported in the National Center for PTSD Patient Medical Information Checklist (occuring within the last 30 days); IES-AV = Impact of Event Scale-Avoidance; IES-INT = Impact of Event Scale-Intrusion; IES-TOT = Impact of Event Scale-Total.
ABSTRACT Stress responses to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks were investigated in a New York City metropolitan (NYC Metro) college sample 2 days, 1, 2, 3 and 8 months post-trauma. Stress responses from a Midwestern College sample were also assessed 2 days after the attack. Results revealed substantial stress responses in both groups 2 days post-trauma. Only small, but significant, differences between the NYC Metro group and the Midwestern group were found, with the NYC group reporting slightly higher stress scores on the Impact of Event Scale (Horowitz, Wilner, and Alvarez, 1979 Horowitz , M. , Wilner , N. , and Alvarez , W. ( 1979 ). Impact of event scale: A measure of subjective stress . Psychosomatic Medicine , 41 , 209 – 218 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The stress responses in the NYC Metro group decreased significantly over time, however, means 3 and 8 months post-trauma suggest that some individuals continued to experience considerable stress responses.
ABSTRACT This paper reports on a 2 phase project developed by a group of practitioners and researchers to identify which trauma screening instrument clinicians find most useful in addiction treatment settings, provide clinicians with the resources necessary to conduct trauma screenings, and promote collaboration between researchers and practitioners. The data on clinicians’ views on trauma screening and on 3 trauma measures were gathered in 2 focus groups of 8–9 clinicians who volunteered to participate. The 2 measures that the clinicians preferred were pilot tested in 5 agencies. The findings suggest that clinicians have a preference for the Violence and Trauma Screening Questionnaire (District of Columbia Trauma Collaboration Study, 1999 District of Columbia Trauma Collaboration Study (DCTCS) – Screening Subcommittee ( 1999 ). Violence and Trauma Screening Questionnaire . Unpublished instrument . [Google Scholar]). The collaborative process between researchers and practitioners appears to be beneficial.
ABSTRACT Using a prospective design, physical health symptoms were examined in a sample of 198 peacekeepers. At pre-deployment, general life stressors and pre-deployment stress symptoms were significant predictors of physical health symptoms. At post-deployment, physical health symptoms were predicted by pre-existing physical health symptoms and stress symptoms reported before and after the mission; mission-related stressors were not associated with physical health symptoms. In addition, stress symptoms mediated the relationship between exposure and physical symptoms. Finally, the hyperarousal symptom cluster was a better predictor of physical health complaints than the other symptom clusters. Implications and limitations are discussed.
ABSTRACT The War on Drugs has yielded a significant growth in the United States prison population, particularly for women. A substantial percentage of women involved in the criminal justice system have a substance use disorder, have committed their crimes for drug money, or were convicted of a drug-related felony. Many drug-involved women enter prison with histories of sexual/physical assault and may be subjected to further victimization within the institution. Although staff sexual misconduct within women's prisons has been established, there has been little attention to its effects on the mental health of incarcerated women or the ways in which women cope with such abuse within the confines of prison. We constructed case narratives from secondary data collected as part of an investigation and later used in a class action lawsuit, thus allowing the women to portray their experiences and choice of coping strategies in their own ‘voices.’ We found that women often made active and calculated decisions to comply with the officers' demands for sex, usually without engaging in a grievance process. Although this ‘compliant’ behavior may be interpreted as passive, and perhaps consensual to the officers seeking sex, it reflects careful planning toward the greatest degree of safety—discharge from prison.
