The increasing diversity of students' learning readiness, interests, and learning profiles requires mathematics instructional materials that support differentiated learning in vocational education. However, teaching modules specifically designed to facilitate content differentiation remain limited. Unlike conventional mathematics modules that primarily provide uniform instructional content, the module developed in this study explicitly incorporates content differentiation to accommodate variations in students' learning readiness, interests, and learning profiles within vocational education settings. This study aimed to develop and validate a content-differentiated mathematics teaching module that is valid, practical, and effective for vocational high school students. A Research and Development (R&D) approach employing the ADDIE instructional design model (analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation) was adopted. The module was evaluated through expert validation involving material, media, and language specialists, while its practicality was assessed using teacher and student response questionnaires. Effectiveness was examined through pretest–posttest achievement data. The findings indicated that the developed module achieved a very high level of validity, with material, media, and language validity scores of 87.47%, 90.00%, and 83.33%, respectively. The module was also perceived as highly practical by teachers (93.65%) and students (87.54%). Furthermore, the implementation of the module significantly improved students' mathematics achievement, as reflected by the increase in the mean score from 64.52 (pretest) to 87.65 (posttest) (p < .001). These findings demonstrate that the proposed module provides an effective instructional resource for implementing content differentiation in heterogeneous mathematics classrooms and offers practical support for promoting adaptive and inclusive learning in vocational high schools.
This study compares vocational education reform in Taiwan and Mainland China to explain why similar reform goals are translated into different institutional practices. Previous cross-strait studies have often examined the two systems separately or compared individual policy measures, while paying limited attention to the institutional logic linking governance scale, institutional ecology, and industrial transition pathways. Using qualitative empirical document analysis within a comparative case-study design, the study analysed 35 core policy, legal, statistical, institutional, and academic sources. Documentary evidence was coded using an integrated covering governance structure, system scale and institutional composition, curriculum and major adjustment, industry–education cooperation, teacher development, and digital transformation. The findings reveal convergence in the shared emphasis on applied talent cultivation, practical learning, and stronger industry linkages, but divergence in the institutional mechanisms through which these objectives are implemented. Taiwan’s relatively smaller and more diversified technical and vocational education system promotes flexible learning pathways, private institutional participation, and industry–academia collaboration, whereas Mainland China’s large-scale system emphasizes national coordination, strategic programme restructuring, school–enterprise cooperation, and workforce development aligned with industrial upgrading. The study contributes an integrated six-dimensional comparative framework for analysing vocational education reform in culturally connected yet institutionally distinct contexts and provides practical insights for context-sensitive policy learning and vocational education reform.
This study examined the relationships among teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), professional competence, students’ 21st-century skills, and career interests in automotive vocational education. Using an exploratory quantitative design, data were collected from 174 students enrolled in nine vocational schools in Indonesia. The proposed model was tested using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to evaluate direct and indirect relationships among the variables. The findings revealed that both TPACK (β = 0.43, p < 0.001) and teachers’ professional competence (β = 0.35, p < 0.001) significantly enhanced students’ 21st-century skills. However, neither TPACK (β = 0.06, p = 0.47) nor professional competence (β = 0.08, p = 0.34) had a significant direct effect on students’ career interest. In contrast, 21st-century skills exerted a strong positive influence on career interest (β = 0.48, p < 0.001). Mediation analysis further demonstrated that 21st-century skills serve as a significant intermediary mechanism linking teacher competence to students’ career aspirations. The results suggest that teacher competence contributes to career development primarily through fostering transferable competencies such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration, creativity, and digital literacy. The study’s novelty lies in integrating TPACK, teachers’ professional competence, 21st-century skills, and Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) into a unified explanatory model. Unlike previous studies that examined these variables separately, this research identifies 21st-century skills as the key pathway through which teacher competence influences career interest. The findings offer practical implications for vocational education by highlighting the importance of strengthening teacher competence, technology-integrated pedagogy, and the systematic integration of 21st-century skills into vocational curricula to better prepare students for future workforce demands.
Vocational electrical learning requires students to transform technical concepts into safe, ordered, and assessable workshop performance. This study developed and validated an ADDIE-based electrical lighting installation jobsheet as procedural scaffolding for grade XI students in an Indonesian vocational school. A research-and-development design was implemented through analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation, using a one-group development trial. Data were collected through classroom observation, teacher interview, expert validation, student-response questionnaires, and diagnostic, formative, and summative assessments. Three media experts, three material experts, and 23 students participated. The jobsheet was produced in printed and digital formats and covered five practice units: single-switch installation, series-switch installation, two-way switch installation, distribution-board lighting installation for a simple building, and light-sensor-based lighting installation. Expert validation indicated high feasibility for media quality (M = 3.83/4.00) and material quality (M = 3.84/4.00), while student response was positive (M = 3.49/4.00). Learning scores increased from diagnostic assessment (M = 47.61) to summative assessment (M = 85.65), with high normalised gain (g = 0.73), a very large paired effect size (Cohen’s dz = 3.02), and 82.61% summative mastery. The findings indicate that a systematically designed jobsheet can connect curriculum outcomes, occupational safety, practical procedures, and assessment evidence. Because the implementation employed a one-group development trial, the findings should be interpreted as evidence of instructional feasibility and associated learning improvement rather than causal effectiveness. The study contributes a low-cost, competency-aligned practical learning resource for vocational electrical education, while further controlled and multi-site studies are required to verify retention and practical-skill transfer.
Despite the critical role of polytechnic lecturers in vocational education, empirical evidence remains limited regarding how organizational support translates into improved lecturer performance through competence and motivation. This study addresses this gap by examining a moderated mediation model linking organizational support, lecturer competence, motivation, and performance. A quantitative correlational design was employed involving 185 lecturers from private polytechnics across various technical disciplines in Indonesia. Data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings indicate that organizational support significantly enhances lecturer competence (β = 0.45, p < 0.001), while competence strongly predicts lecturer performance (β = 0.50, p < 0.001). Competence fully mediates the relationship between organizational support and performance (β = 0.23, p < 0.01), whereas motivation significantly strengthens the competence–performance relationship (β = 0.22, p < 0.01), supporting the proposed moderated mediation model. These findings provide novel evidence that sustainable lecturer performance depends not only on organizational support but also on competence development and motivational conditions. The study contributes to organizational support theory within vocational higher education and offers practical guidance for designing competence-centered professional development and motivation-enhancing strategies to improve lecturer effectiveness.
Despite the implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum's Pancasila Student Profile Strengthening Project (P5) in Indonesian vocational schools, existing modules remain generic across expertise programs, limiting their effectiveness in integrating character development with vocational competencies. This study aimed to develop and validate an expertise-specific P5 module with an employment theme for the Building Modeling and Information Design (BMID) program using the ADDIE instructional design model. Development research was conducted through the five ADDIE stages involving P5 facilitators, subject matter experts, media experts, observers, teachers, and Grade XI BMID students. The developed module underwent expert validation and field implementation to evaluate its feasibility and instructional effectiveness. The results demonstrated high feasibility ratings from content experts (86.67%), media experts (90.91%), teachers (90.00%), and students (87.01%), indicating that the module is highly suitable for vocational learning. Unlike generic P5 modules, the developed module integrates BMID-specific technical competencies, authentic project-based learning activities, and employment-oriented contexts while simultaneously strengthening Pancasila character dimensions. This study contributes a systematic and replicable framework for developing expertise-specific P5 modules and provides practical guidance for vocational educators and curriculum developers in designing contextually relevant learning resources that enhance both vocational competence and character development under the Merdeka Curriculum.
Improving the teaching quality of vocational pre-service teachers requires integrative strategies that combine cultural values, motivation, and leadership development. This study examines the direct and indirect effects of Tamansiswa teaching values and motivation on teaching quality, with transformational leadership as a mediating variable. A quantitative longitudinal ex post facto design was employed. Data were collected from 697 vocational pre-service teachers in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, using structured questionnaires measuring Tamansiswa teaching values, motivation, transformational leadership, and teaching quality through validated Likert-scale instruments. Data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares–Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to test measurement reliability, structural relationships, and mediation effects. The results indicate that motivation is the strongest predictor of teaching quality (β = 0.880), followed by transformational leadership (β = 0.238), while Tamansiswa teaching values show a smaller but significant direct effect (β = 0.088). Both Tamansiswa teaching values (β = 0.287) and motivation (β = 0.399) significantly enhance transformational leadership. Mediation analysis confirms that transformational leadership strengthens the effects of Tamansiswa teaching values and motivation on teaching quality. The structural model demonstrates good fit (SRMR = 0.056; NFI = 0.926). These findings position transformational leadership as a key mechanism through which indigenous values and motivation are translated into effective teaching practices. The study contributes to vocational teacher education by integrating culturally grounded values into a leadership-mediated model of teaching quality and recommends embedding value internalization, motivational support, and leadership development within pre-service teacher preparation programs.
This study compares vocational education reform in Taiwan and Mainland China to explain why similar reform goals are translated into different institutional practices. Previous cross-strait studies have often examined the two systems separately or compared individual policy measures, while paying limited attention to the institutional logic linking governance scale, institutional ecology, and industrial transition pathways. Using qualitative empirical document analysis within a comparative case-study design, the study analysed 35 core policy, legal, statistical, institutional, and academic sources. Documentary evidence was coded using an integrated six-dimensional comparative framework covering governance structure, institutional composition, curriculum, industry–education cooperation, teacher development, and digital transformation. The findings reveal convergence in the shared emphasis on applied talent cultivation, practical learning, and stronger industry linkages, but divergence in the institutional mechanisms through which these objectives are implemented. Taiwan’s relatively smaller and more diversified technical and vocational education system promotes flexible learning pathways, private institutional participation, and industry–academia collaboration, whereas Mainland China’s large-scale system emphasizes national coordination, strategic programme restructuring, school–enterprise cooperation, and workforce development aligned with industrial upgrading. The study contributes an integrated six-dimensional comparative framework for analysing vocational education reform in culturally connected yet institutionally distinct contexts and provides practical insights for context-sensitive policy learning and vocational education reform.
This study provides a systematic literature review of halal tourism in non-Muslim and multicultural destinations, focusing on rejection, misconceptions, and meaning contestation in Indonesia. Following an adapted SALSA framework and PRISMA-informed screening process, relevant studies published between 2016 and 2025 were systematically identified from major international and Indonesian academic databases. After staged screening, 23 eligible publications were synthesized through two-round thematic content analysis. Guided by symbolic threat theory, framing theory, and collaborative governance, the review identified four recurring themes: halal food and certification, destination branding and identity, regulation, and social rejection. The findings indicate that public resistance is primarily driven by misconceptions that equate halal tourism with Islamisation and threats to local cultural identity rather than opposition to Muslim-friendly services themselves. Comparative evidence from Japan, South Korea, Thailand, and Morocco further demonstrates that inclusive Muslim-friendly service approaches are more socially acceptable than normative halal destination branding. This review contributes an integrated explanatory framework linking policy framing, symbolic threat, misconceptions, and collaborative governance to explain resistance toward halal tourism in multicultural destinations. The findings provide practical guidance for promoting inclusive Muslim-friendly services, strengthening evidence-based public communication, and developing collaborative governance strategies to enhance socially sustainable tourism development.
Continuous Improvement (CI) has become a fundamental management philosophy for achieving sustainable competitiveness in the manufacturing industry. However, despite its widespread adoption, many CI initiatives fail due to human‐related barriers that hinder implementation at the organizational level. This study aims to identify and analyze the key human factors that impede CI implementation in Indonesian manufacturing industries while exploring strategies to overcome these challenges. Using an exploratory qualitative design, data were collected through in-depth interviews with 15 manufacturing practitioners and analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings reveal seven major human-related inhibitors to successful CI implementation: complacency, misperception, irritability, individualism, work rigidity, frustration, and stress. Collectively, these factors erode motivation, weaken collaboration, and intensify resistance to organizational change, thereby limiting organizational learning and performance improvement. The results corroborate existing literature emphasizing the significance of human and cultural aspects in sustaining CI initiatives. To address these barriers, the study highlights the importance of fostering a supportive organizational culture that promotes psychological safety, teamwork, and continuous incremental learning through the Kaizen philosophy. Management interventions should focus on strengthening human engagement, realistic goal setting, and reward mechanisms that value collective effort and continuous learning. This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on CI by providing an in-depth understanding of the human dimensions of continuous improvement within manufacturing contexts in developing countries. The findings provide both theoretical insights and practical guidance for leaders seeking to cultivate sustainable CI cultures driven by people rather than processes.
Although the Kirkpatrick model has been widely adopted to evaluate training effectiveness, its application has predominantly focused on post-training assessment rather than its strategic integration into planning, implementation, evaluation, and continuous improvement throughout the training management cycle. This study aimed to examine how the Kirkpatrick model functions as an integrated job training management framework for enhancing workforce readiness and organizational productivity at the Semarang Vocational Development and Productivity Center (BBPVP). A qualitative case study design was employed involving nine purposively selected participants. Data were collected through in-depth interviews, observations, and document analysis and analyzed using the Miles and Huberman interactive model with source triangulation to ensure credibility. The findings indicate that systematic industry-based planning, competency-based instructional implementation, and integrated multi-level evaluation collectively strengthened participant competencies, workplace readiness, and organizational productivity. However, several challenges remained, including variations in instructional quality, limited training facilities, fragmented evaluation systems, and insufficient post-training monitoring. The findings further reveal that the four Kirkpatrick levels function as interconnected managerial feedback mechanisms linking planning, instructional implementation, behavioral transfer, organizational outcomes, and continuous program improvement. This study reconceptualizes the Kirkpatrick model as an integrated vocational training management framework rather than merely a post-training evaluation model, thereby extending its theoretical application in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and workforce development.
Globalization increasingly demands graduates who are able to communicate across cultures confidently and appropriately. However, limited evidence explains how culturally diverse students in semi-military vocational settings experience intercultural learning, particularly when language barriers and differing expectations shape their academic and social adjustment. This study explores the motivations, perceived benefits, challenges, and intercultural learning experiences of foreign students enrolled at Surabaya Aviation Polytechnic. Using a qualitative case study approach, data were collected from 18 Timor-Leste students through semi-structured interviews and open-ended questionnaires, and analyzed using deductive–inductive thematic analysis with data triangulation. The conceptual frameworks of intercultural communicative competence (ICC), cultural intelligence (CQ), and self-efficacy in English use informed the construction of interview guides and the interpretation of findings. Results reveal six key motivations for studying abroad, mainly career advancement, institutional reputation, and program practicality. Nevertheless, students experienced a clear gap between expectations and reality. Limited interaction with local peers, regional language accents, and low confidence in using English led to reduced frequency of intercultural encounters, social withdrawal, and stagnation in ICC development. Personal factors such as introversion and language anxiety further constrained participation. The findings suggest that authentic intercultural exposure, confidence-building strategies, and structured cultural preparation are essential to support students’ integration and learning. Practically, institutions should provide mentoring, communication simulations, and media-based cultural orientation to improve students’ readiness, emotional regulation, and self-efficacy. The study contributes to the literature by highlighting how intercultural learning unfolds in a unique vocational aviation context and by proposing practical approaches to enhance students’ intercultural development.
This study examined whether mobile microlearning that enabled repeated access to short, SOP-anchored instructional videos improved vocational skill retention compared with conventional practice instruction. A quasi-experimental pretest–posttest–delayed posttest design was implemented with 80 undergraduate students in a practice-based course (experimental n = 40; control n = 40). The experimental group learned through segmented microlearning videos (2–6 minutes) aligned with procedural steps, safety checkpoints, and quality criteria, accessible via mobile devices for rewatching before and after workshop practice. The control group received conventional instruction through instructor demonstration and job-sheet guidance without structured video re-access. Data were collected using a validated SOP-aligned practical performance rubric, a procedural knowledge test, and an observation sheet documenting procedural errors and task completion time; perceived cognitive load was measured using a brief rating scale. Content validity was established through expert judgment and instrument refinement, and reliability was supported through inter-rater agreement for performance scoring and internal consistency for test and scale measures. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Shapiro–Wilk normality tests, Levene’s homogeneity tests, and independent-samples t-tests to compare groups at pretest (baseline equivalence), posttest (immediate outcomes), and delayed posttest (retention outcomes). The results indicated that the experimental group achieved significantly higher delayed practical performance and procedural knowledge than the control group, with fewer procedural errors and faster completion time. These findings suggest that rewatchable SOP-based mobile microlearning can strengthen durable procedural competence in vocational practice settings. This study contributes empirical evidence to vocational education literature by demonstrating that structured, rewatchable SOP-based microlearning enhances durable procedural competence.
Digital transformation and the implementation of distance education require the readiness of educational support staff as key enablers of technology-based academic services, particularly in the context of vocational and applied higher education. This study aims to analyze the readiness of educational support staff in supporting digital-based distance education in terms of digital literacy, understanding of distance education policies, and the capacity to manage online learning systems. The study employed a descriptive sequential explanatory mixed-methods design. Quantitative data were collected through a Likert-scale questionnaire administered to educational support staff, while qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews. The results indicate that 65% of educational support staff demonstrated moderate to good levels of digital literacy, 60% showed a moderate level of understanding of distance education policies, and only approximately 55% exhibited optimal readiness in managing online learning systems. Qualitative findings reveal that limited access to continuous professional training, diverse educational backgrounds, and uneven institutional support constitute the main barriers to staff readiness. This study concludes that the readiness of educational support staff needs to be systematically strengthened to ensure the effectiveness and sustainability of digital academic services and distance education. The contribution of this study lies in providing empirical evidence to support capacity-building strategies and institutional policies aimed at strengthening human resource readiness for digital transformation in vocational and applied higher education.
Teacher professional identity is widely recognized as a key factor shaping motivation, commitment, and well-being in teaching practice. However, limited empirical evidence explains how teachers’ sense of identity interacts with resilience and burnout, particularly across different program types and institutional contexts. This study examines the relationships between teachers’ professional identity, resilience, and burnout, and identifies the extent to which resilience mediates the influence of professional identity on burnout. A quantitative correlational design was employed involving teachers who completed validated professional identity, resilience, and burnout scales. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results show that professional identity is positively associated with resilience and negatively associated with burnout. Resilience demonstrates a significant negative effect on burnout and partially mediates the relationship between professional identity and burnout. These findings indicate that teachers who internalize their professional role more strongly tend to be more resilient and less vulnerable to emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. The study highlights the importance of strengthening teacher identity formation alongside resilience-building programs as an integrated strategy for preventing burnout. Practically, the findings suggest that higher education institutions should design professional development initiatives that foster reflective practice, supportive collegial environments, and adaptive coping skills. The study contributes theoretically by clarifying the mediating mechanism linking identity, resilience, and burnout, and practically by offering evidence-based recommendations for teacher well-being interventions.
Partnerships between vocational schools and industry are expected to strengthen the link between learning and workplace demands; however, the extent to which partnership programs are implemented effectively is not always systematically evaluated. This study evaluates the partnership program between SMK Ma’arif Salam and PT Astra Daihatsu Motor (ADM) in the Light Vehicle Engineering Department using the CIPP (Context, Input, Process, Product) evaluation model. Respondents consisted of the Principal, Vice Principal for Public Relations, Head of Department, teachers, and industry partners. Data were collected through validated questionnaires, interviews, and document analysis, and were analyzed using descriptive statistics and qualitative thematic analysis. The overall achievement level of the partnership program reached 84% (good), with context 89% (very good), input 84% (good), process 84% (good), and product 65% (fair). The results indicate that although the program is generally well managed, several persistent challenges remain: high teacher workload, limited coordination with industry, inadequate facilities and funding, limited industrial experience among teachers, uneven implementation of SOPs, low student motivation, and suboptimal graduate absorption. The product component shows the lowest performance, suggesting that the program’s outcomes have not fully translated into improved student competence and employability. This evaluation provides evidence-based guidance for prioritizing improvement efforts, particularly in strengthening teacher development, aligning facilities with industry standards, expanding internship opportunities, and enhancing curriculum implementation. The findings also offer transferable insights for other vocational schools and industries implementing similar partnership schemes.
The rapid transformation of the fashion industry due to digitalization and globalization has significantly reshaped the competencies required of its workforce. This study aims to reveal the essential skills demanded by fashion industry stakeholders, assess the relevance of the fashion design vocational curriculum to these industry needs, and examine the correlation between educational content and industry expectations. Using a quantitative approach with survey and document analysis, data were collected from 96 respondents, comprising fashion industry practitioners, vocational teachers, and alumni. The findings indicate that the industry prioritizes a hybrid competency set comprising advanced technical skills, digital fluency (e.g., computer-aided design and 3D fashion design software), soft skills, and entrepreneurial acumen. However, the current vocational curriculum remains moderately relevant (mean = 3.88), with significant gaps in the integration of digital and entrepreneurship. Pearson correlation analysis reveals a very strong and statistically significant relationship (r = 0.952, p < 0.01) between curriculum content and industry expectations. These results underscore the urgency of adopting a demand-driven, digitally oriented, and industry-partnered curriculum reform. The study offers valuable insights for policymakers, educators, and curriculum developers seeking to enhance graduate employability and align vocational education with the evolving dynamics of the fashion sector.
Research on digital maturity models in education, particularly vocational education, remains limited, despite the urgent need for schools to adapt to digital transformation. Vocational High Schools (SMK) in Indonesia are mandated to prepare graduates as skilled workers ready to meet industry demands, and therefore require a clear framework to assess their digital readiness. This study aims to develop a model and an instrument to measure the digital maturity level of vocational schools. The research employed a literature review of existing digital maturity models from both education and industry, followed by synthesis and adaptation to the vocational school context. The resulting model consists of five dimensions: strategy and organization, people and culture, products and services, technology and infrastructure, and organizational operations. It defines five levels of maturity: not ready, initial readiness, medium readiness, mature readiness, and fully applied. An instrument with 29 indicators was developed and tested through a pilot study in one vocational school, with results showing strong validity and reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.935). The findings highlight the inclusion of the products and services dimension as a novel contribution compared to existing educational models. This model and instrument provide practical benefits for vocational school leaders to assess current digital maturity, identify areas for improvement, and plan targeted digital transformation strategies. The study also opens avenues for future research through larger-scale validation and integration of field observations.
In an era marked by rapid technological advancements and increasing demands for efficient and secure document management, transforming paper-based certificates into electronic certificates has emerged as a critical undertaking for the TVET sector. The conversion of physical certificates to digital formats involves digitising their content, implementing verification mechanisms, and securely storing them in electronic repositories. This paradigm shift reduces the environmental footprint associated with paper documentation and enhances accessibility, security, and efficiency in certificate management. Moreover, digital certificates enable the integration of advanced technologies, such as blockchain, to ensure the document's security and authenticity. The study reveals that electronic certification systems implemented by various institutions commonly incorporate features such as QR-code verification, blockchain technology, Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), cloud-based storage, and online validation mechanisms to enhance authenticity, security, and accessibility. Furthermore, key stakeholders across various agencies strongly support the implementation of electronic certificates due to their enhanced security features, reduced administrative burden, and improved operational efficiency. A qualitative approach was performed through semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders. The study reveals that key stakeholders across various agencies strongly support the idea of electronic certificates. Institutions and organizations are embracing this transformation due to the enhanced security features, reduced administrative burdens, and increased efficiency of electronic certificates. Furthermore, the environmental benefits of reduced paper usage align with the National Green Technology Policy and are gaining traction among stakeholders. The findings improve understanding regarding the digitization of TVET certification towards electronic certificates in line with technological advancement.
The rapid expansion of digital learning environments has encouraged schools to integrate e-learning into teaching practices. However, many vocational teachers still show uneven levels of adoption, indicating that the factors shaping their willingness and actual use of e-learning require deeper investigation. This study examines the determinants of vocational teachers’ e-learning adoption using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), focusing on the roles of perceived usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PEOU), behavioral intention (BI), and actual use (AU). A quantitative survey was administered to 118 vocational high school teachers, and the data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings reveal that PEOU significantly influences both PU and BI, while PU also exerts a positive effect on BI. Furthermore, BI demonstrates a strong and significant effect on AU, mediating the relationships between PU, PEOU, and AU. Overall, the model explains a substantial proportion of variance in teachers’ behavioral intention and actual use of e-learning. These results confirm the robustness of TAM in vocational education contexts and highlight that teachers are more likely to use e-learning when they perceive it as easy, useful, and aligned with their instructional needs. Practically, the study suggests that vocational schools should strengthen digital literacy training, provide technical support, and design user-friendly platforms to enhance teachers’ confidence and motivation. At the policy level, establishing clear digital competence standards may foster sustainable e-learning adoption across vocational institutions.
