Abstract Mulberry silk has exceptional mechanical properties and biocompatible nature, but suffers from its poor antibacterial capacity as protein fiber, a nutrient‐rich environment for bacterial growth. Endowing the natural silk with antibacterial properties while preserving its inherent advantages remains a longstanding challenge. In this study, blue fluorescence carbon dots (B‐CDs) are prepared from Crinis carbonisatus , which is derived from calcination of human hair and has been used as the traditional Chinese medicine for about 1800 years. Such B‐CDs exhibit robust Staphylococcus aureus ‐inhibiting activity, and thus they are employed as feed additives for silkworms. The experimental silkworms show blue fluorescence in their bodies, cocoons, and even as moths, while the dissection of silkworms confirms the transport of B‐CDs from the digestive tract to the silk gland. The degummed silk possesses visible blue fluorescence and anti‐ S. aureus properties, while retaining its inherent mechanical properties. Notably, B‐CDs also regulate the secondary structure of silk proteins and upregulate the antibacterial protein contents, resulting in a synergistic antibacterial effect. As a result, the B‐CDs@silk can accelerate wound healing, which outperforms the conventional gauze. In addition, B‐CDs show no observable adverse effects on silkworm or rat health, indicating their biocompatibility and biosafety preliminarily.
Abstract Precision tumor theranostics are fundamentally constrained by the dynamic complexity and pronounced heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Conventional imaging agents and therapeutics often suffer from limited specificity, resulting in off‐target accumulation and suboptimal clinical outcomes. Peptide‐based responsive fluorescent probes have emerged as a class of adaptive functional materials that integrate tumor‐selective recognition, programmable stimulus responsiveness, and modular structural tunability. This review summarizes recent advances in peptide‐based molecular fluorescent probes for precision oncology. We first outline the key biochemical hallmarks of the TME and the design principles of responsive molecular probes, and then systematically categorize representative applications of targeting, stimulus‐responsive, and integrated peptide probes. On one hand, peptides can function as targeting ligands, stimulus‐responsive switches, and regulators of hierarchical self‐assembly. On the other hand, these probes demonstrate notable utility in high‐contrast tumor imaging, intraoperative guidance, real‐time therapeutic monitoring, and multimodal theranostic applications. Finally, emerging opportunities and challenges for next‐generation peptide‐based responsive probes are discussed, highlighting logic‐gated and cascade‐responsive designs, multimodal imaging integration, optimization of near‐infrared II fluorophores, and clinical translation. Collectively, peptide‐based responsive fluorescent probes constitute an intelligent, programmable, and highly clinically relevant platform for precision tumor theranostics.
Abstract The increasing prevalence of multidrug‐resistant bacterial infections has highlighted the limitations of conventional antibiotics and accelerated the development of alternative antimicrobial strategies. Antimicrobial peptides exhibit broad‐spectrum activity and low resistance propensity; however, their clinical translation is hindered by poor stability, rapid degradation, and limited controllability in complex physiological environments. In this context, peptide‐based responsive materials and functional nanoplatforms have emerged as a powerful materials‐oriented strategy to overcome these challenges. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in peptide‐based antibacterial nanoplatforms, covering multiple design dimensions including self‐assembled peptide nanomaterials, inorganic hybrid systems, polymer‐based platforms, and lipid‐based nanocarriers. We highlight peptide self‐assembly strategies based on amino acids, short peptides, peptide amphiphiles, and unnatural amino acids, emphasizing supramolecular chemistry and sequence‐dependent structural regulation. Representative hybrid systems including peptide–metal (Ag, Au), mesoporous silica, organosilica, and MXene platforms, as well as polymeric (PAMAM, polysaccharide, PLGA) and lipid systems (liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, self‐emulsifying drug delivery systems), are discussed in terms of antibacterial mechanisms, delivery enhancement, and environmental responsiveness. Furthermore, we summarize biointerface engineering strategies, including PEGylation, cell‐penetrating peptides, and chitosan modification, together with optimization of peptide building blocks via natural sequence engineering, hybrid peptide design, and de novo amphiphilic sequence construction. Importantly, we highlight microenvironment‐responsive regulation strategies, including protease inhibition and permeability enhancement, as well as stimulus‐responsive behaviors triggered by enzymatic, chemical, or interfacial cues. Emerging systems such as self‐propelled micro/nanomotors are also introduced. Finally, we discuss current challenges and future perspectives in developing intelligent, adaptive, and stimuli‐responsive peptide‐based antibacterial nanoplatforms, with particular emphasis on their potential to address infection control and antimicrobial resistance in animal health and livestock production systems.
Abstract Carbon‐based quantum dots (CQDs) have emerged as a versatile class of fluorescent nanomaterials with broad applications in optoelectronics, sensing, and biomedicine; however, their intrinsic structural and chemical complexity poses significant challenges to mechanistic understanding and rational regulation. Machine learning (ML) provides a powerful approach for analyzing complex experimental datasets, uncovering hidden correlations, and enabling insights beyond conventional empirical methodologies. This review summarizes recent ML‐driven advances in CQDs research, with a particular emphasis on fluorescence mechanisms, regulation strategies, and application‐relevant performance optimization, while critically examining fundamental challenges related to interpretability, generalizability, and data reliability. Finally, perspectives on future ML‐assisted frameworks for advancing CQDs toward practical applications are provided.
Abstract Global health is seriously threatened by bacterial diseases, especially when it comes to bacterial biofilms. Such infections may worsen immune evasion and bacterial drug resistance, making treatment more difficult and raising the cost of healthcare. However, it has been shown that traditional techniques, such as the use of antibiotics and mechanical removal, are only partially effective in eliminating biofilms. Gas therapy is an alternative promising antibacterial therapeutic approach. Because of its numerous antibacterial qualities, nitric oxide (NO) is particularly a prospective contender. The clinical potential of NO has been demonstrated in certain applications, whereby it generates reactive oxygen and nitrogen species that effectively disperse biofilms and eradicate bacteria in deep tissues. NO‐releasing materials can induce NO release from exogenous stimuli (including light, ultrasound, magnetic, and electric) or endogenous stimuli (including pH, reactive oxygen species, glucose, enzyme, and glutathione), which provides a significant advantage in treating broad and deep infections. This paper reviews the antimicrobial mechanisms of NO, NO‐releasing materials, and their application in skin and wound infection, implant‐related and orthopedic infection, and oral and periodontal infection treatment. Particular concern is given to the crucial function of NO in biofilm regulation, to explore theoretical insights and effective guidance for future research and innovation.
Abstract Bismuth telluride (Bi 2 Te 3 ) is a leading material for flexible thermoelectric films, making it suited for low‐grade energy harvesting and sensing applications in wearable devices. However, the performance of Bi 2 Te 3 films suffers from low mobility, a consequence of their small grain size and lack of preferred crystal orientation. Here, we demonstrate that a two‐step annealing process combining in situ and post‐annealing heat treatment can significantly enhance the thermoelectric properties of n‐type Bi 2 Te 3 films prepared by magnetron sputtering. This method promotes pronounced grain growth and strengthens the preferred ( 00l ) crystal texture, increasing charge carrier mobility from 2.84 cm 2 V −1 s −1 to 132.54 cm 2 V −1 s −1 . Meanwhile, the two‐step annealing introduces Bi Te antisite defects, which optimizes the carrier concentration to 1.29 × 10 19 cm −3 . The combination of the tailored carrier concentration and exceptionally high mobility produces a room‐temperature power factor of 14.5 μW cm −1 K −2 in the fabricated Bi 2 Te 3 ‐based films, with a high power density of 545.66 μW cm −2 at a temperature difference of 30 K. A minimal electrical variation (<7%) during the bending test demonstrates the excellent bending resistance and stability of the flexible Bi 2 Te 3 films. This study demonstrates that the two‐step annealing process is an effective method to improve the mobility and performance of Bi 2 Te 3 ‐based films.
Abstract Amid growing food demand and the need for resilient agroecosystems, improving crop photosynthetic efficiency is crucial for sustainable agriculture. Carbon dots (CDs), an emerging class of carbon‐based nanomaterials, show strong potential for enhancing plant light‐use efficiency owing to their tunable photoluminescence, high water solubility, adjustable quasi‐core‐shell structure, and excellent biocompatibility. Focusing on the selective spectral response of plant photosynthetic systems, this review systematically summarizes the design principles and recent advances of water‐soluble, high‐efficiency blue‐emissive CDs (400–480 nm, photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) ≥ 60%) and red‐emissive CDs (600–700 nm, PLQY ≥ 15%; water solubility ≥10 mg mL −1 ) for spectral matching. First, from the perspective of synthetic modulation, we outline key strategies—including the selection of high‐quantum‐yield precursors, optimization of reaction conditions, and heteroatom doping—in constructing emissive centers and tailoring emission wavelengths. Subsequently, we highlight the multifunctional roles of CDs in plant systems. On the one hand, CDs enable spectral conversion by transforming ultraviolet light into photosynthetically active radiation, thereby facilitating efficient light‐energy redistribution. On the other hand, through coupling with the photosynthetic electron transport chain, CDs can modulate electron transfer processes and enhance downstream assimilatory metabolism. Building upon these mechanistic insights, we further evaluate the feasibility of synergistic blue‐red dual‐emission regulation strategies, as well as the scalability of CD synthesis for practical applications. Finally, we identify the key challenges that must be addressed for translating spectrally matched CDs from laboratory research to field deployment, and provide an outlook on their future development in enabling green and high‐efficiency agriculture.
Abstract Microrobots based on responsive materials have pioneered a new paradigm for disease treatment. However, the field currently lacks clear scale‐dependent design principles, often conflating robots ranging from micrometers to centimeters in size. This review addresses this conceptual ambiguity by proposing a well‐defined multi‐scale classification based on the characteristic dimensions of microrobots—millimeter scale, sub‐millimeter scale, micrometer scale, and nanometer scale. Starting from responsive materials, we systematically analyze how each scale dictates fundamental choices in design feature, manufacturing technology, driving mechanism, and control strategy, which are inherently governed by scale‐dominated physical principles. Furthermore, the application of scale‐determined operation modes of microrobots across different stages of medical intervention is explored, clarifying how size empowers each group with unique functionalities. This review clarifies the concept of scale and examines the literature on robots developed between 1 μm and 1 cm, excluding those at the nanoscale.
Abstract Viologens have garnered significant attention as versatile stimuli‐responsive materials due to their tunable coloration, exceptional redox reversibility, and rapid electron transfer kinetics. While several reviews have extensively surveyed the applications of viologens, a comprehensive analysis focusing on tailored functional design—specifically how intended device functionalities dictate the requisite physicochemical properties of viologen derivatives‐remains scarce. Oriented toward high‐performance applications, this review systematically summarizes recent advancements in the structural modification of viologens, with a particular emphasis on harnessing their redox‐mediated optical and electronic transitions. We critically evaluate four primary modification strategies that significantly influence device performance: side‐chain substitution, functionalization of the bipyridinium core, macromolecular polymerization, and the development of viologen‐based composites. The review elucidates the fundamental structure‐property‐performance relationships that underpin these chemical modifications. Furthermore, we highlight the progress in customizable devices enabled by these engineered materials, showcasing their applications in electrochromic (EC)‐fluorescence dual‐functional systems, photothermal regulation, multicolor displays, energy storage, and multi‐stimuli‐responsive architectures. Finally, we address current challenges and outline future research trends to inspire the design of next‐generation, task‐specific viologen‐based redox devices.
Abstract Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) represent a class of lightly crosslinked polymer networks that combine the soft elasticity of polymer networks with the anisotropy of liquid crystal (LC) units. These intelligent polymeric materials respond to external stimuli, generating reversible deformations. The modulation of LCE dimensions enables control over their deformation capabilities and functionalities, showcasing rich potential in microfluidics, soft robotics, intelligent textiles, tunable optical devices, energy dissipation materials, and various other domains. Meeting diverse application requirements necessitates considering factors such as shape, size, mechanical strength, topological structure, functional modes, and stimulus‐response mechanisms. Therefore, the modulation and design of LCE dimensions emerge as a promising approach. This paper initially explores LCE's fundamental physical properties, driving mechanisms, and alignment characteristics. Subsequently, it reviews the latest advancements in manufacturing technologies for LCE from zero‐dimensional (0D) to three‐dimensional (3D) architectures, emphasizing specific functionalities and potential applications. Finally, the paper summarizes current challenges and future opportunities.
Bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) is a leading material for flexible thermoelectric films, making it suited for low-grade energy harvesting and sensing applications in wearable devices. However, the performance of Bi2Te3 films suffers from low mobility, a consequence of their small grain size and lack of preferred crystal orientation. Here, we demonstrate that a two-step annealing process combining in situ and post-annealing heat treatment can significantly enhance the thermoelectric properties of n-type Bi2Te3 films prepared by magnetron sputtering. This method promotes pronounced grain growth and strengthens the preferred (00l) crystal texture, increasing charge carrier mobility from 2.84 cm(2) V-1 s(-1) to 132.54 cm(2) V-1 s(-1). Meanwhile, the two-step annealing introduces Bi-Te antisite defects, which optimizes the carrier concentration to 1.29 & times; 10(19) cm(-3). The combination of the tailored carrier concentration and exceptionally high mobility produces a room-temperature power factor of 14.5 mu W cm(-1) K-2 in the fabricated Bi2Te3-based films, with a high power density of 545.66 mu W cm(-2) at a temperature difference of 30 K. A minimal electrical variation (<7%) during the bending test demonstrates the excellent bending resistance and stability of the flexible Bi2Te3 films. This study demonstrates that the two-step annealing process is an effective method to improve the mobility and performance of Bi2Te3-based films.
Thermo-stimulated luminescent (TSL) materials capable of near-infrared (NIR) emission are attractive for optical information storage and anti-counterfeiting owing to their intrinsic optical memory and concealed thermal readout characteristics. However, most such TSL systems rely on rare-earth or transition-metal doping, while fully metal-free NIR TSL materials remain extremely lacking. Herein, we report the construction of a metal-free and NIR-emissive TSL system based on carbon dots (CDs) via a stepwise energy transfer strategy, by decoupling energy storage and emission regulation within a hybrid material architecture. CDs are embedded in a carbon nitride matrix and simultaneously serve as emissive centers and trap-modulating units, enabling efficient photoinduced energy storage and thermally activated release. By further integrating stepwise F & ouml;rster resonance energy transfer, intrinsic green TSL is converted into pink and NIR emission without introducing any metal elements. The resulting materials exhibit long-term charge retention, rewritable optical memory, and highly concealed NIR readout, enabling advanced applications in information storage, encryption, and anti-counterfeiting.
Abstract Flexible materials with dynamic structural colors have attracted considerable interest for multilevel information interaction, showing great potential in visual interfaces, anti‐counterfeiting, and optical sensing. However, replicating 3D coupling of geometry and color found in nature, where shape morphing and optical modulation act together, remains a major challenge for soft materials. Herein, we report a stress‐guided photo‐programming strategy to encode multilevel 2D‐to‐3D information into cholesteric liquid crystal elastomers (CLCEs) through locally defined crosslinking networks. Specifically, spatially controlled UV exposure under programmed mechanical pre‐strain creates anisotropic crosslinking gradients, which locally lock in stress distributions and orient the cholesteric helix. The hierarchical stress of photochemical patterning and mechanical strain enables simultaneous 3D shape morphing and structural color evolution from a single 2D film precursor, constructing geometry‐color dual‐channel information carriers. The mechanical and optical programming are decoupled: internal laser‐defined crosslink gradients determine the cholesteric pitch, while external deformation drives geometric transformation. Consequently, hidden multi‐stage information can be visually decoded through programmable 3D deformation, encrypted patterns, and color transitions. This work establishes a generalizable paradigm for integrating stress‐driven mechanics and photonic functionality in soft materials, offering broad potential for dynamic encryption, multifunctional robotics, and interactive devices.
Abstract Van der Waals heterostructures based on two‐dimensional materials provide a broad platform for the design of high‐performance optoelectronic devices. Nevertheless, the development of elegant device architectures capable of broadband spectral detection, while maintaining inherent compatibility with emerging functionalities such as optical imaging, optoelectronic synaptic simulation, and reconfigurable logic operations, remains a significant challenge. This article reports a multifunctional photodetector based on NiPS3/GaN type‐II band alignment heterostructure. The device exhibits a broad spectral response from ultraviolet (365 nm) to visible light (700 nm), and its photocurrent is five orders of magnitude higher than that of an isolated‐material device. By introducing graphene as the contact layer, the response speed of the device is doubled, while its responsivities under 365 and 450 nm illumination are enhanced from 2.4 A/W and 54.8 mA/W to 18.2 A/W and 206.9 mA/W, respectively, representing a several‐fold increase. Further research reveals that the competitive relationship among the photothermoelectric, photovoltaic, and photoconductive effects in the heterostructure can be dynamically controlled by adjusting the bias voltage, thereby achieving effective modulation of the device's transient response behavior. Based on this physical mechanism, the device demonstrates application potential in ultraviolet imaging, photoelectric synapses (achieving 94.7% handwritten digit recognition accuracy), and reconfigurable optical logic gates. This work provides a new design idea for the development of multifunctional wide‐spectrum photodetectors.
Bioactive materials that sense environmental signals and dynamically regulate metabolic outputs hold great promise for responsive biomanufacturing and therapeutic applications. However, anaerobic microbial bioreactors remain highly vulnerable to oxygen exposure, limiting their robustness and functional stability under normal conditions. Here, we developed an oxygen-responsive living bioreactor that converts oxygen from an inhibitory factor into a programmable stimulus for sustained anaerobic metabolite production. Using indole-3-propionic acid (IPA) as a model output, we established a two-step strategy combining aerobic-anaerobic metabolic fusion with interspecies protoplast fusion to genetically embed oxygen tolerance into an anaerobic IPA-producing chassis, generating the fusion strain (P-Cs.HN01/P-Bs.168). This engineering system enables robust and high-level IPA biosynthesis under aerobic conditions without depending on external aerobic partners. Importantly, the enhanced oxygen tolerance and IPA productivity were stably maintained over successive passages, demonstrating that the phenotype is genetically encoded rather than conditionally induced. Functional validation in deoxynivalenol induced intestinal injury models in mice and piglets revealed that fermentation-derived IPA produced by P-Cs.HN01/P-Bs.168 engineering bioreactor exerted pronounced protective and detoxifying effects in vivo. Collectively, this work provides a generalizable framework for converting transient microbial interactions into stable, oxygen-responsive living materials for anaerobic biomanufacturing and biomedical applications.
Abstract A ferroelectric poly(vinylidene fluoride‐co‐trifluoroethylene) [P(VDF‐TrFE)] 52/48 mol.% random copolymer was recently shown to exhibit large piezoelectric responses when properly processed to achieve an extended‐chain crystal structure. Although relaxor‐like secondary crystals (SCs) within the oriented amorphous fraction (OAF), that is, SCOAF, was proposed to explain the high direct and converse piezoelectric coefficients in the quenched‐stretched‐annealed‐poled sample (denoted as coP‐52/48QSAP), direct structural verification remained unavailable. In this work, we employed in‐situ time‐resolved small‐angle scattering and wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction to study the nanoscale structural evolution of SCOAF under mechanical loading. We find that even a small strain up to 5.84% triggered significant lamellar thickening, together with stretching‐induced crystallization (i.e., 10% increase in crystallinity) by merging SCOAF into the poled primary crystal (PC) lamellae. Due to the templating effect from PCs with poled/aligned dipoles, the overall polarization increased. Upon removing the mechanical loading, the lamellar spacing, SCOAF, and polarization largely recovered, demonstrating the direct piezoelectric effect. These results established direct structural evidence linking reversible SCOAF crystallization/melting upon mechanical loading/unloading to the giant piezoelectricity of coP‐52/48QSAP. The knowledge obtained from this study will provide design principles for engineering next‐generation high‐performance piezoelectric polymers.
Abstract Precise control of the orientation of anisotropic nanostructures is essential for exploiting their collective properties, yet achieving uniform alignment over large areas remains challenging. We report a magnetic‐field‐assisted colloidal assembly strategy for fabricating magnetite nanorod arrays with tunable orientation and thickness. Magnetic alignment of nanorods is facilitated by incorporating a high‐boiling‐point solvent, such as ethylene glycol, into the aqueous nanorod dispersion, thereby suppressing disturbances from flow convection and capillary forces. By adjusting the direction of the magnetic field, nanorod arrays with vertical, tilted, or horizontal configurations can be produced. To achieve scalability, the process is adapted to a moving substrate, ensuring uniform deposition of the aligned nanorod arrays across macroscopic areas. This versatile and scalable approach provides a robust platform for constructing nanorod arrays with programmable orientation and thickness, advancing next‐generation photonic, magnetic, and multifunctional devices.
The self-template approach to porous carbon utilizes the precursor's inherent skeletal structure to form pores. When the initial pore sizes in precursors are very small, the final pore sizes of the resulting porous carbon decrease further, because the pores usually collapse during high-temperature calcination. In the case of carbon dots (CDs) as nanosized self-templates, the pores primarily arise from the splintering of CDs, and the resulting pore sizes are usually less than 1 nm. To enlarge the pore sizes and produce more mesopores, nitrogen-sulfur co-doped carbon dots (NSCDs) are designed that utilize the synergistic pore-forming effect of amide bonds and sulfur-containing functional groups. Amide bonds can be broken by alkaline soaking to produce pores, while sulfur groups can decompose into gas during calcination to enlarge pores. After CDs self-assembly, alkaline treatment and calcination, a series of hierarchical porous carbon materials are synthesized with a pore size distribution concentrated in the 1.1-1.6 nm range and an impressive mesopore volume ratio up to 47.2%. The symmetric supercapacitors assembled by such porous carbon exhibit the optimal energy density of 17.3 Wh kg-1 at a high-power density of 7000 W kg-1. This study provides a method to tune the pore sizes of carbon electrodes using CDs as self-templates, so as to meet the requirement of supercapacitors working under different conditions.
Abstract This Perspective discusses the potential of stimuli‐responsive liquid crystal polymer (LCP) bio‐interfaces in modulating cell behavior as next generation dynamic artificial scaffolds. Unlike current artificial biomaterials that have static properties, LCPs offer fast, reversible, and spatially programmable deformation that reflects the dynamic properties of the natural materials and systems. In this Perspective, we first outline static materials and key interface properties known to influence cellular processes, then provide an overview of LCPs operating under physiological conditions, crosslinking strategies, and alignment mechanisms relevant for designing responsive systems. Subsequently, we reorganize existing findings on LCP bio‐interfaces into two conceptual categories: (1) static LCPs that demonstrate baseline biocompatibility and cellular alignment effects, and (2) dynamic LCPs that enable externally triggered dynamics for on‐demand mechanomodulation. The categorization highlights that, despite their intrinsic stimuli‐responsiveness, LCP‐based dynamic bio‐polymer interfaces remain scarcely explored in cellular studies. Finally, we discuss current material limitations, operational challenges under physiological conditions, and technological barriers such as stiffness mismatch, biocompatibility, and stimulus compatibility, and propose future research directions for unlocking adaptive, multi‐stimuli‐responsive, and integrated‐readout LCP platforms for cell modulation.
Antimicrobial resistance has evolved into one of the most serious threats to global public health, yet generalizable routes for refining random peptide mixtures (RPMs) into defined, stimuli-responsive, and low-cost antimicrobial formulations remain limited. Here, a refinement framework is presented. It centers on machine learning and co-assembly that converts broad-spectrum RPMs into interpretable antimicrobial peptide cocktails without exhaustive screening. Specifically, starting from a 10-mer Arg/Leu RPM (RL0.5), its antimicrobial activity and self-assembly are quantified, and machine learning is used to prioritize key functional peptides. Leveraging synergistic and co-assembly behaviors, an optimal combination (AEP) is selected. The resulting defined formulation, RL10, achieves a fourfold increase in in vitro activity against Escherichia coli and exhibits a reduced critical aggregation concentration relative to the starting RPM. Overall, this study presents a practical path from complex, low-cost precursors to efficient, co-assembling antimicrobial cocktails, and summarizes explainable design rules that support engineering and industrialization.
