Inadequate levels of perceived safety on campuses have been reported by college students (e.g., Maffini & Dillard, 2021) and connected to college students' mental health concerns (e.g., sleep disturbances; Etopio et al., 2019). Little is known about student-athletes’ (SA) perceptions of safety, particularly related to their racial and gender identities, and how their perception of safety is related to their mental health. We surveyed 213 SAs regarding their safety perceptions on campus, athletic department, and teams, along with anxiety (GAD-2), depression (PHQ-2), and sleep disturbances (PROMIS-SD). White SAs reported higher levels of safety than Black SAs for all three environments and Non-Black SAs of Color at the team level. Perceived safety on campus, athletic department, and teams was related significantly to anxiety (F(3, 209) = 4.70, p = .003, adjR2 = .05), depression (F(3, 209) = 5.08, p = .002, adjR2 = .06), and sleep disturbances (F(3, 209) = 5.25, p = .002, adjR2 = .06). Our findings suggest perceived safety within the SA’s environment vary based on their racial, but not gender identity, and feeling safer on their campuses, athletic department, and team was related to better mental health outcomes.
While cheerleading is a staple among athletics competition in the United States, cheerleading has perennially struggled to achieve legitimacy as a competitive and rigorous sport. However, cheerleaders experience similar stressors to those of their athlete peers. In addition, cheerleaders occupy unique and distinct stressors pertaining to expectations for appearance and behavior. While extant research has examined maladaptive coping mechanisms among competing athletes, the distinct pressures and stressors associated with cheerleading may be associated with unique engagement in maladaptive coping. Accordingly, the present study sought to examine the prevalence and propensity of maladaptive coping behaviors among a sample of current and former college cheerleaders. Interviews with 24 participants revealed that distinct social expectations and institutional pressures can result in maladaptive coping mechanisms of varying extremity in collegiate cheerleading. Findings are contextualized within the framework of role theory and practical implications are discussed.
Athlete migration is a visible element of the sport-globalization nexus. At the intercollegiate level, a new migration pattern has recently emerged. Numerous British universities are recruiting American postgraduate athletes for a variety of sports. International athlete migration has been examined using the cultural transition model (CTM) (Ryba et al., 2016). CTM features three phases that profile the developmental tracks migrant athletes experience in a new culture. This study used CTM to qualitatively explore the pre-transition experiences of American postgraduate athletes. Nineteen Americans playing at one British university were interviewed prior to the 2022-23 academic year. Data were recorded, transcribed, and interpreted using thematic analysis (Braun & Clark, 2006). Results indicate that American postgraduates found multiple paths to pre-transition. Once there, they collected knowledge, executed developmental tasks, and psychosocially prepared for migration. They described pre-transition as emotional phase but found numerous layers of support. These results reflect much of the research using CTM but add depth and unique elements to the pre-transition phase. The study offers resultant recommendations for prospective migrant athletes and host universities to improve the migration process.
COVID-19 and its ripple effects (e.g., social distancing, sport cancellations, quarantining) negatively affected the careers of collegiate student-athletes. The disruption to university systems and collegiate athletics and the stress and uncertainty felt globally likely increased international student-athletes' (ISAs) risk for distress. Yet, ISAs also possessed unique characteristics and were immersed within supportive sport environments, which may have shaped their psychological responses in distinct ways. The COVID-19 pandemic created an opportunity to understand how ISAs, as individuals navigating both athletic and international identities, responded and coped. To date, no study has examined the initial coping experiences of international collegiate athletes, even though college athletes were strongly affected. Thus, I examined ISAs’ experiences related to coping during the first two months of the COVID-19 pandemic and the cancellation of collegiate sports. Through an open-ended question, ISAs (N = 516; women = 62.6%; Mage = 20.41 years, SD = 1.57 years) across NCAA Divisions and 23 sports shared their coping experiences. Reflexive thematic analysis identified five higher-order themes: 1) Affected by COVID-19 and Sports Cancellation; 2) Coped Through Avoidance; 3) Social Support – A Blessing and a Challenge; 4) Focused on Health, Wellness, & Spirituality; and 5) Gained Acceptance through Gratitude and Routines. Findings illuminate ways universities can support ISAs’ unique needs.
A significant increase in mental health concerns among college athletes has fueled interest in the impact of athletic identity on psychological outcomes. Research has produced mixed results regarding the association between athletic identity and mental health. This study sought to clarify this relationship and to improve our understanding of depression among NAIA college athletes, especially those who attach a great degree of importance and strength to the athlete’s role in relation to other activities. Voluntary college athletes aged 18-years-old or older and attending an NAIA member institution participated in the study (n = 361). They completed a web-based instrument that consisted of the following: (1) demographic questionnaire, (2) Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), and (3) Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS). Results showed that exceedingly elevated levels of athletic identity and threats to it can contribute to depression. Given the implications for success, college athletic programs and university administrators need to focus on the exploration of identity and address the hurdles that college athletes face when injury or other factors threaten their identity.
The name, image, and likeness (NIL) policy altered the landscape of college sports and provided college athletes with new opportunities to monetize their talents and personal brands. However, while the NCAA stated that all athletes would be able to participate in NIL deals and be compensated for the use of their NIL, international college athletes (ICAs) soon discovered they were restricted from participation while located in the U.S., due to their student visa status. Through nine semi-structured interviews of current and former ICAs we identified themes related to Bourdieu’s theory of social capital and Bauder’s theory of citizenship capital that covered legal issues associated with participating, pay-for-play, segregation, and team commitment. Findings of the study show that ICAs are at a disadvantage with their development opportunities, missing out on experiences such as contract negotiation and chances to grow their net worth. Additionally, we note that the different access to opportunities for international and domestic athletes could lead to team or athletic department conflict. We suggest that athletic departments focus on programming that enhances international college athletes’ capital to mitigate disparities between domestic and international athletes.
Research on mental health interventions for athletes have recognized systematic limitations in the field (i.e., a dearth of randomized control trials, and lack of long-term follow up measurement). The current study summarized the pilot study of the Canadian Mental Health Association’s Talk Today mental health intervention within collegiate sport. Four teams (two male (n = 64), two female (n = 74)) were randomly assigned to an intervention or a wait-list control condition. Mental health literacy, stigma, psychological distress, and help-seeking were measured at four different timepoints, including a 6-month follow up. There were no significant effects between the conditions over time on any of the outcomes. However, responses from an exit survey showed that the participants felt satisfied with the program and confident in applying the content that they had learned. Future research, particularly feasibility studies, are warranted in this field.
Participation of girls in sports is associated with positive outcomes; however, girls continue to face barriers to participation due to gender, age, and cultural factors. Coaches play a pivotal role in girls' persistence in sports, with influential mechanisms including providing social support and cultivating high-quality coach-athlete relationships. Nevertheless, limited research has explored girls' specific preferences regarding coaches' supportive behaviors, particularly within diverse cultural contexts. Much of the existing literature is based on data from Western countries, with findings often generalized across cultural settings - without considering girls from Mediterranean populations, who remain underrepresented in research. This study employed a qualitative approach using focus group interviews with 24 Israeli adolescent female athletes to examine their preferences for coaches' supportive behaviors. Participants expressed preferences for behaviors that foster personal attention, invest extra effort, provide attention, and reflect trust. These preferences appear to be shaped by cultural patterns in Israeli society, which blends informality and familial closeness with strong respect for authority and distinct gender role expectations. The study highlights the culturally embedded nature of girls' preferences and offers new insights into how coaches can more effectively support girls' engagement in sport by adopting culturally responsive practices.
Black women college athletes navigate intersections of race, gender, and athletic ability within predominantly White institutions (PWIs). They can face stereotype threat, racialized academic expectations, and pressures to conform to dominant institution norms. This qualitative study explores the college experiences of Black women college athletes at a predominantly White institution (PWI), focusing on how intersecting oppressions and stereotypes influence their academic, social, and athletic lives. Guided by Black feminist thought (BFT) and stereotype threat theory, the research addresses two questions: What are the college experiences of BWCAs, and how do stereotypes affect these experiences? Findings reveal that pre-college experiences in predominantly White high schools provide familiarity with racialized learning environments, but fail to mitigate challenges such as stereotype threat, isolation, and invisibility. In the classroom, stereotype threat exacerbates feelings of insecurity and self-doubt, raising expectations to prove their intelligence through hypervisibility in academic interactions. Further, the racialized assumptions about Black women college athletes’ academic abilities present opportunities for them to either confront the oppression through self-definition or to adjust their behaviors through coping strategies. The findings underscore the critical need for PWIs to implement inclusive policies, culturally relevant programs, and mentorship initiatives that validate the complex identities of this population.
With the increase of attention towards esports in both industry and academia, volumes of research have been conducted to support professional esports athletes and esports college-athletes (ECAs). Although studies exploring professional esports athletes' transition experiences were available, little to none was known about this experience for ECAs. Based on Schlossberg’s transition theory and previous studies exploring the transition experiences of traditional sports student-athletes, this study aimed to provide a deeper understanding of ECAs’ transition experience. This study conducted three focus group interviews with four ECAs in each group who played the same game. The result of this study showed there are similarities and differences in transition experiences that ECAs experience compared to their counterparts. Based on previous research and transition theory, practical implications were given to support this population’s successful transition.
This research conceptualizes the NCAA Division I student-athlete position as similar to a position of employment utilizing the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model developed by Bakker & Demerouti (2017) from the field of Industrial-Organizational Psychology. We utilize qualitative methods to conduct an exploratory study that assesses the characteristics of student-athletes through analysis of perceived role demands, role resources, and personal resources using a sample of using a sample of 30 student-athletes (15 men, 15 women) at mostly large Division I universities across the U.S. Data were analyzed utilizing thematic analysis and revealed the various demands that student-athletes faced, as well as the many ways they navigated them with resources from their universities and their personal lives. Student-athletes face a variety of role demands addressing the student role, the athlete role, and a combination of the two roles. To manage these demands, student-athletes access numerous role resources, such as staff, facilities and support items, and events and policies. NCAA Division I student-athletes also utilize numerous personal resources, including relational and routine-based support. Findings support the use of the JD-R Model with student-athletes, encourage future work conceptualizing them using employment-related models and theories, and offer recommendations for supporting Division I student-athletes.
Role conflict is prevalent for college athletes across varying competitive levels, sport types, and identities. Recent reform to the collegiate athletic model, such as enabling college athletes (CAs) to profit from their Name, Image, and Likeness, may create additional demands and conflicts for participants. Despite the plethora of research into college athletes’ experiences with role conflict, few studies examine possible solutions. This study offers a novel intervention to role conflict through a community engagement (CE) program. Short, immersive, contributions to one’s local environment can improve social connections, limit negative mental health effects, and generate a higher sense of purpose, all of which can mitigate role conflict, but have yet to be empirically verified with CAs. Insights from a larger Participatory Action Research (PAR) study are shared to offer a theory-informed approach to initiate CE in college sports. The PAR established relationships between a DI athletic department and a local chapter of the Special Olympics (SO). Findings indicate the potential for CE to reduce role conflict for CAs. In this new era of college sports wherein athletes and departments are seeking new compensation forms and models of support, we argue CE creates generative roles and experiences to better integrate academic, athletic, and employment settings.
Vulnerability to negative mental health outcomes (i.e. anxiety and depression) among DI collegiate athletes may best be understood using Self Determination Theory (SDT) and the framework that need frustration impairs autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Need frustration may also relate to negative mental health symptoms via higher ruminative thinking, known to relate to both need frustration and poor mental health. The present study tested these two path models (i.e., SDT need frustration components [autonomy, relatedness, competency]-->rumination facets [problem-focused thoughts, counterfactual thinking, repetitive thinking, anticipatory thoughts]-->mental health problems (one for depression and one for anxiety as outcomes) among 341 collegiate athletes (65.6% female) who participated in a DI varsity sport. Within our depression model, there were no significant indirect effects between need frustration components and depressive symptoms via rumination facets. Regarding our anxiety model, several indirect effects were found such that higher scores on autonomy and competency frustration were associated with higher endorsement of two rumination facets (problem-focused thoughts and repetitive thoughts), which in turn were associated with greater endorsement of anxiety symptoms. Future research should be conducted to evaluate other factors to design proper interventions to help reduce symptomology for anxiety and depression among collegiate athletes.
Many factors contribute to successful athletic performance, and athletes have reported that mentors have played a vital role in their athletic performance as well as their personal development. Mentoring relationships can have a transformative impact on people’s lives, and mentored athletes, either by peers or coaches, have higher levels of dedication, confidence, and individual performance. Having a mentor is critically important during unexpected challenges in life such as was the case with the extraordinary uncertainty for para-athletes during the postponement of the 2020 Paralympic Games. The purpose of this study was to explore how mentoring aided para-athletes’ navigating the challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings revealed that para-athletes from the United States who were preparing for the 2020 Paralympics had three primary sources of mentoring support: coach-athlete mentoring, peer mentoring, and social mentoring. Three themes were also derived from the interviews: (a) encouragement, (b) accountability, and (c) motivation to train. There is a need for para-athlete mentoring, and understanding mentoring support during challenging times in athlete development can be critical to their athletic performance.
The aim of this study is to explore how Division I college athletes made meaning of their experiences during the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in spring 2020. Though existing literature details various athlete transitions, there is limited knowledge about how athletes navigate unprecedented disruptions like a global pandemic. This qualitative study employed semi-structured interviews to gather in-depth data. The study included a diverse sample of 19 college athletes, ranging from freshmen to seniors, representing various sports and academic levels. Findings revealed that athletes employed diverse strategies to maintain readiness and mental sharpness, reflecting both proactive and reactive coping mechanisms. The findings also highlighted the profound emotional impact, with athletes experiencing significant stress, identity crises, and the importance of support systems in their resilience. These insights underscore the necessity for comprehensive support systems and flexible adaptation strategies to help college athletes manage significant transitions and disruptions effectively.
Prior to the start of the pandemic in 2020, almost two-thirds of all varsity athletes across gender and sport in Canada had engaged in a sport hazing ritual (Johnson et al., 2018). While hazing in sport has been researched from a variety of perspectives, few studies have examined hazing in the context of varsity athletes' social media use. This is a potential space where Johnson (2017) suggested that technological tools such as cellphones, that provide instant access to social media, have enabled users to more easily capture and post online, potentially exacerbating the trauma inflicted on rookies during team hazing events. This qualitative study engaged semi-structured interviews to examine the intersections of hazing and social media Canadian varsity athletes. The results describe the use of social media by athletes within the context of their sport and their particular team and its relationship to their continued team hazing practices. It also offers a gender-based comparison of the ways in which athletes interpreted both formal and informal messaging they received from their athletic departments and teams about hazing and/or social media. The key determinants for the athletes' use of social media in sport were using their social media platform(s) as a team-focused promotion tool, a communication tool, and a motivator for rivalry. Differences emerged as men athletes used social media for recruitment, mentorship and as a sport promotional tool. With respect to using social media for hazing communications, the women athletes were primarily concerned with protecting their teammates’ well-being and ensuring the goal of hazing on their team was centered on creating stronger bonds, while men engaged in clandestine and self-protecting social media messaging.
Because assessing and managing risks is an integral part of sports, athletes may develop general beliefs regarding taking and avoiding risks that they draw upon. This qualitative study used inductive content analysis of survey responses to examine risk-related experiences and attitudes in sample of U.S. NCAA Division I college student-athletes (N = 101) from a variety of sports. Participants were asked to describe situations they experienced that required deciding whether or not to take risks, and to describe their “personal philosophy” on taking risks and playing it safe. Thematic analysis identified five situational contexts in which the student-athletes said they encountered risk decisions: a) during competition, b) managing health and injuries, c) preparing for competition, d) managing expectations, and e) navigating student-athlete life. Student-athletes valued taking risks for success, personal growth, avoidance of regrets, and social approval. Although most respondents were able to describe situations in which they considered it best to play safe, either as the best competitive strategy, to avoid injury/protect one’s health, and to follow instincts, a small segment of participants expressed that it is never acceptable to play it safe. Findings hold implications for coaches, trainers, parents and others working to improve student-athlete success and well-being.
College student-athletes perform at high levels in school and sport. Previous studies have found academic barriers (e.g., time management) and contributors (e.g., academic center supports; Hardin & Pate, 2013), but there is a need to investigate factors that impact success for athletic and academic pursuits in tandem. In the present study 176 college student-athletes across nine institutions and 18 sports answered the following: What do you feel contributes to your success (1) in school? (2) in your sport(s)? What do you feel is a barrier to your success (3) in school? (4) in your sport(s)? Themes were categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic according to Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000) and thematically analyzed. For contributors to academic success, athletes listed intrinsic factors (e.g., study effort/skills) more often than extrinsic factors (e.g., social support). The academic barriers question showed extrinsic factors (e.g., balance/other obligations) were reported more than intrinsic factors (e.g., underdeveloped skills). For athletic success, intrinsic contributors (e.g., determination and mindset) and intrinsic barriers (e.g., mental barriers) were cited more than extrinsic counterparts. Applying these findings using SDT’s basic psychological needs (i.e., autonomy, competence, relatedness) can inform key student-athlete success stakeholders and inform development programming at the collegiate level.
Given the increasing recruitment of International Student Athletes (ISAs) in the US, this study investigated high-performance international athletes’ career transitions in Southeastern Conference (SEC) schools. Utilizing Cultural Intelligence (CQ) theory, which explains a person’s capability for performing well in culturally diverse environments (Fang et al., 2018), this study specifically examined how the four CQ elements (metacognition, cognition, motivation, and behavior) impacted ISA’s transitions. Using criterion-based sampling and snowball sampling, a total of 14 ISAs (five females and nine males) were interviewed. The four CQ elements were utilized as protocol coding for analyzing the interview manuscripts (Saldaña, 2016). Facing new/different cultural systems, these four CQ elements explained how the SEC ISAs perceived (metacognition CQ), learned (cognition CQ), interacted (behavior CQ), and encouraged (motivation CQ) themselves during their transitions. An interview study with 14 ISAs revealed that previous international experiences, self-awareness, athletic team culture, trustworthy relationships with coaches, career support from campus/athletic departments, and access to resources were salient themes. Understanding SEC ISAs’ CQ and transitional experiences can help future college athletes better prepare to enter, perform and live well in this dynamic, globalized college sports’ system and will assist college athletic coaches and administrators recruiting ISAs to their campuses.
This study aimed to explore collegiate student-athletesˈ preferences of coaching leadership behaviours in strength and conditioning coaching and evaluate differences between the student-athletesˈ preferences of behaviours based on task variability. In total 145 National Collegiate Athletic Association student-athletes (closed sports athletes = 51, open sports athletes = 94) completed an electronic questionnaire involving the athletesˈ preference version of the Revised Leadership Scale for Strength and Conditioning. Results revealed that the most favoured behaviour was ˈtraining and instructionˈ, whilst the least favoured was ˈautocraticˈ. Similar results were observed for closed and open sports groups, though closed sports athletes preferred ˈtraining and instructionˈ. In contrast, open sports athletes preferred ˈsocial supportˈ. A marginal statistically significant difference (p = 0.048) indicated task-variability-based variations that might form a fruitful basis for future research. However, small effect sizes suggest that the magnitude of differences is not practically significant. This study provides insights on collegiate student-athletesˈ preferences of coaching leadership behaviours in delivery of strength and conditioning, contributing to the development and experiences of athletes. Both groups valued positive psychosocial behaviours such as training and instruction, positive feedback, situational considerations and social support. The findings offer implications for coaching and provide a foundation for further research into coaching leadership behaviours in strength and conditioning.
