Antibiotic resistance in Pasteurella multocida (P. multocida) poses a significant threat to both animal and public health. This study investigates the genomic mechanisms underlying antibiotic resistance in P. multocida strains isolated from various hosts in India, including buffalo, cattle, sheep, and pigs, as well as other species such as ducks and deer. A total of 40 whole genome sequences of P. multocida strains were analyzed, revealing that 17.5% harbored resistance genes, with notable resistance to antibiotics such as streptomycin, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim. The ResFinder tool and Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD) were employed to identify resistance genes. The presence of integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs) was detected using the ICEfinder tool, while MobileElementFinder was used to identify mobile genetic elements associated with resistance genes. Origins of transfer (oriT) were determined using oriTfinder, and efflux pumps were identified using resources from the Bacterial and Viral Bioinformatics Resource Center. Prophage sequences were annotated using PHASTEST. The study highlights the significant role of efflux pumps and oriT in the survival of resistant strains. The IncQ1 plasmid, identified in buffalo-derived strains such as PmBUFF2016HRY and ABT/RAWAL/2015/HSR, indicates a potential for multi-drug resistance spread across bacterial populations. Additionally, sheep-derived strains exhibited a high prevalence of prophages and genetic elements like integrase and transposase, making them key reservoirs for resistance evolution. This work provides valuable insights into the genomic mechanisms driving antibiotic resistance in P. multocida, offering a foundation for developing targeted strategies to curb resistance spread.
One of the major public health concerns is the transmission of antibiotic-resistant bacteria including extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) from animals to humans. This study investigated the prevalence of blaSHV, blaCTX-M, blaOXA and blaTEM ESBL genes in P. aeruginosa isolates from Nigeria local dogs bred in Nsukka. Anal swab samples (n = 150) were bacteriologically analyzed on soybean casein digest broth and cetrimide agar for the enrichment and isolation of P. aeruginosa respectively. Antibiotic sensitivity test was done according to Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI) criteria. Extended-Spectrum B-Lactamases production was detected phenotypically using the double disc synergy test (DDST) method and genotypically multiplex PCR technique respectively. A total of 39 (26.0 %) of the 150 samples were P. aeruginosa which were multiply resistant to antibiotics tested. The P. aeruginosa isolates were found to be multiply resistant to antibiotics tested. Twenty-One (53.9%) of the isolates showed ESBL phenotype while 18 (46.2 %) of the isolates were confirmed ESBL positive by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). The prevalence of blaSHV, blaCTX-M, blaOXA and blaTEM genes in P. aeruginosa tested were 4 (10.3%), 17 (43.6 %), 15 (38.5%), and 6 (15.4%), respectively. This study, therefore, reported multi-drug resistant ESBL-positive P. aeruginosa in these local dog breeds. The exposure of these animals to antibiotics accumulates antibiotic resistance determinants in their intestinal flora.
The study aimed to investigate the correlation between elevation and various environmental factors influencing Dirofilaria immitis (D. immitis) infection rate in stray dogs within the mountainous areas of Gilan province, Iran. This study was conducted from 2022 to 2023 and analyzed 392 stray dogs across 12 cities, categorizing them based on elevation and examining variables such as temperature, precipitation, and humidity. The diagnosis of D. immitis was performed using PCR methods, and data were processed with ArcGIS 10.8 software. The results revealed an overall infection rate of 44.28% ± 2.73, with Fuman-Masuleh reporting the highest at 60%, and Lahijan recorded the lowest at 25.5%. Linear regression analysis indicated a moderately positive correlation between D. immitis cases and elevation (β coefficient of 0.543). Maximum temperature showed a strong positive correlation with D. immitis cases (β coefficient of 0.907). Spatial analysis using Moran's I Index indicated no significant spatial autocorrelation between positive cases and elevation, suggesting that temperature and other environmental factors are critical in the distribution of D. immitis. The Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation highlighted areas at higher risk for D. immitis infection, particularly along Gilan province's eastern and western borders. In conclusion, this study highlights the significant infection rate of D. immitis infection in stray dogs, even in the mountainous regions of Gilan province. It is crucial to recognize Gilan as a high-risk area for this infection. Therefore, implementing effective control and prevention programs is essential.
Camel trypanosomiasis, caused by various haemoprotozoan parasites, is a devastating disease with severe health impacts. Trypanosoma evansi, the most prevalent parasite in camels, causes surra disease, transmitted mechanically by biting flies without an intermediate host. Clinical manifestations include intermittent fever, anemia, loss of body condition, edema, and abortion in infected animals. This study utilized real-time PCR to detect T. evansi in dromedary camels in Golestan province, northern Iran. Using random cluster sampling, 48 blood samples were collected from camels in four counties: Gonbad-e-Kavoos, Kalaleh, Agh-ghala, and Gomishan. Real-time PCR detected T. evansi in 6 samples (12.5%; 95% CI: 3.2-21.8). In Gonbad-e-Kavoos, Agh-ghala, and Kalaleh, 2 out of 12 samples (16.6%) tested positive in each county, while no positive samples were found in Gomishan. High sensitivity and specificity diagnostic techniques are crucial for detecting and controlling the disease. This study confirms the prevalence of T. evansi in Golestan province and demonstrates the utility of real-time PCR for its detection and control.
The Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is one of the zoonotic arboviral diseases transmitted by ticks. It is endemic in several parts of the world, including some African countries. This study was carried out to determine the possible circulation of the CCHF virus in Algeria. To this end, the study was carried out in several regions of northeastern Algeria, in which the sheep species was particularly targeted because of its importance in the epidemiology of the disease. Blood samples were collected from 276 sheep between September and November 2023, and the obtained sera were analyzed using an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) to detect the presence of anti-CCHF virus antibodies. Region, age, sex, livestock farming type, and farm management system were analyzed as potential risk factors using a Chi-square (χ2) test and a multivariate regression analysis. The results revealed an overall prevalence rate of 39.13 %, suggesting the exposure of the sheep population to the CCHF virus, and hence the circulation of the virus throughout the study region. Region, age, and livestock farming type were determined to be potential risk factors associated with exposure to the CCHF virus. This is the first study to report the circulation of the CCHF virus among the Algerian sheep population. Further studies should be carried out to better understand CCHF epidemiology in the country.
Leishmania infection manifests across various clinical syndromes, predominantly affecting humans in less developed regions globally. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), caused by Leishmania major and transmitted by infected female sand flies, is a crucial neglected disease prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas. Diagnosis of leishmaniasis is performed mostly through staining of blood or skin samples, which can accompany some problems such as appropriate slide preparation avoiding artifacts, low amount of parasites, and expertise of the technicians. Therefore, it is important to develop an easy, sensitive, and specific method that harbors a quantitative aspect like a semi-quantitative method. We present a new, easy-to-handle, innovative, and specific quantitative method to detect L. major in skin lesions of suspicious leishmaniasis patients. For this aim, DNA was extracted from the promastigote form of L. major, human cells, and the slide smears prepared from the skin lesion. The quantitative PCR was performed with the primer pair derived from 18S rRNA genes of L. major and human gene, which can amplify the DNA of both origins simultaneously. As expected, the PCR product originating from human cells had a PCR product of 255 bp in length, whereas the PCR product originating from the parasite had a PCR product of 360 bp in length, which can be used for quantitative analysis. Since this method is innovative, sensitive, specific, and convenient, we believe that it can also be used for the management of successful therapy.
Bats are natural reservoirs of various types of viruses, especially coronaviruses, constituting approximately 31% of all viruses in this group. Bats can become a source of direct or indirect transmission, infecting humans and generating epidemic and even pandemic outbreaks. Panama has more than 118 species of bats recorded, of which some are likely hosts of various types of coronaviruses. However, studies have yet to be conducted in our country to determine the existence and prevalence of coronavirus in bats since they might be a risk for zoonotic transmissions. To determine the prevalence of coronavirus in bats from Panama, 217 specimens of 48 species of bats were captured in different sites of the country. Fecal samples were collected from the captured specimens to determine the presence of coronavirus by amplifying a 440 bp region of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene using conventional RT-PCR and real-time PCR. No positive results for the presence of coronavirus were obtained in any of the 217 samples tested with the two PCR techniques used in this work. Positive and negative controls for all step procedures yielded the expected results with both techniques. The negative results obtained in our study in detecting coronavirus do not necessarily imply that bats in Panama are not reservoirs of coronavirus. Our results suggest that the prevalence of coronavirus in the bat species collected in Panama is considerably low, which did not allow us to detect positives. Further studies analyzing more samples per species and more species will confirm these findings.
The aim of this study was to investigate the emergence of staphylococci resistant to heavy metals among methicillin-resistant staphylococcus spp. (MRS) for the first time in Iran. In the present study, in the first step, 300 staphylococcus isolates from humans and domestic animals (cows, horses, dogs, and cats) were studied by disk diffusion method to identify resistance to methicillin. Then among the resistant isolates, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) was confirmed by detecting the nucA gene using PCR. After identifying the MRS and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains, these isolates were phenotypically tested to evaluate the resistance to zinc chloride and cadmium acetate using Muller Hinton agar (MHA) culture medium supplemented with metal. Finally, mecA and czrC genes were examined using the PCR method to evaluate the genotypic resistance to methicillin and heavy metals, respectively. The frequency of phenotypic MRS isolates in the phenotypic evaluation was 51 (17%), and almost half of the MRS isolates (n = 25 or 49%) were confirmed to be MRSA using the S. aureus -specific PCR assay for the mecA gene. Heavy metal susceptibility testing using Mueller Hinton agar plates (Becton Dickinson) supplemented with either zinc chloride or cadmium acetate revealed that 49% and 8% of MRS isolates were resistant to zinc chloride and cadmium acetate, respectively. PCR of the czrC gene showed that only 66.7% of dog MRS isolates phenotypically resistant to these heavy metals harbored the czrC gene. Here, phenotypic resistance to methicillin had a significant relationship with the existence of the mecA gene in all MRS strains. Interestingly, in dog MRS strains the phenotypic resistance to heavy metals had a significant relationship to the harboring of the czrC gene, and also there was a high correlation between mecA and czrC genes. Therefore, the presence of heavy metals (zinc and cadmium) in the living environment of staphylococci makes these bacteria resistant to methicillin.
Brucellosis is one of the important zoonotic diseases caused by gram-negative bacteria of the Brucella genus. Given that brucellosis in Iranian camels is not monitored, knowing the status of this disease in camels can be crucial from a health and economic point of view. The present study investigated the Brucella infection rate of camels in Yazd province. Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein of 86 healthy camels, and their serum was separated. Serum samples were analyzed using serological tests, including Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT), Serum Agglutination Test (SAT), 2-Mercaptoetanole (2-ME) test, and indirect ELISA (i-ELISA). In addition, the degree of agreement between RBPT and i-ELISA methods was evaluated using Cohen's kappa test. The relationship between cases of Brucella infection in studied camels and the variables of age, gender, and sampling location was investigated using the chi-square test and SPSS version 22 software. P-values less than 0.05 were considered significant. Brucella infection rate by RBPT, SAT, 2-ME, and i-ELISA methods was 4.7%, 3.5%, 4.7%, and 9.3%, respectively. A substantial agreement was also found between RBPT and i-ELISA. No significant relationship existed between Brucella infection and gender and age variables. However, this relationship was significant with sampling location (P<0.05). The current study revealed the presence of Brucella infection in one-humped camels of the Yazd province. Therefore, monitoring the disease status in camels is advisable to control brucellosis in the region.
This study was conducted to estimate the seroprevalence of brucellosis in small ruminants of Wachile district Borena. Three hundred twenty-four samples (188 goats and 136 sheep) were proportionally selected from five kebeles. Five animals were sampled systematically from each flock at a Kth interval until the sample size of kebeles was attained. All animals were sampled in a flock with less than five animals, whereas from flock size above five animals, a maximum of five were sampled at an interval of n/N= kth. The assumed risk factors like physiological status, age, sex, flock size, and other factors recorded. Serum prepared from blood samples collected for serological tests (Rose Bengal Plate Test and indirect ELISA). Data was analyzed using Stata-14 software. Seroprevalence association with assumed risk factors were compared by Chi-square using Fisher’s exact test. The study revealed a 5.2% seroprevalence by a screening test, of which four positives were confirmed by iELISA (1.23%) with seroprevalence of 1.6% and 0.74% in goats and sheep, respectively. There was no significant (p>0.05) association observed in age, sex, flock size, BCS, and introduction of new animals. Reproductive parameters had a significant association with seroprevalence (p<0.05). Perception of the community shows they have no experience of proper disposal. Protection during parturition shows 26% use soap and 22% use water only. Poor community knowledge about the disease and its zoonotic significance was recorded. Low seroprevalence in small ruminant observed which was more associated with the introduction of new animals. A significant association between reproductive parameters and seroprevalence indicates the disease related to reproduction. Therefore, attention should be given even though the prevalence is low.
Coxiella burnetii is the cause of a common bacterial disease between humans and animals. The resulting disease from an infection with this agent is referred to as Q fever in humans and as coxillosis in animals. The present research was performed to pinpoint the seroprevalence of coxiellosis in small ruminant (goats and sheep) populations in the East Azarbaijan province, northwest of Iran. Blood samples taken from 184 small ruminants (164 sheep and 20 goats) in various rural parts of the East Azarbaijan province were analyzed using an indirect ELISA test. Sex, age, species, history of abortion, and geographical location were also recorded as risk factors. Out of a total of 184 serum samples analyzed for the presence of antibodies against C. burnetii, 39.7% (n = 73) appeared positive, 7% (n = 13) were doubtful, and 53.3% (n = 98) were negative. There were no statistically significant differences among the risk factors, except for sex and geographical area. The study revealed that a relatively high proportion of the tested small ruminants are seropositive to C. burnetii. Steps should be implemented to halt the transmission of the disease and reduce the zoonotic risk of C. burnetii in the region, taking into account the economic and public health significance of C. burnetii for both animals and humans.
Small mammals are invasive species to agriculture and food resources worldwide. They are also reservoir hosts for medically and veterinary important zoonotic pathogens worldwide. Identifying ecological environments that serve as different small mammals' habitats as reservoirs for vector-borne diseases can help us to restrain their populations and manage the place of risk for spreading zoonotic diseases. This study was aimed to collect and identify the small mammals in northern Iran and to investigate the habitats with more potential risk for reservoirs of zoonotic Leishmania. In this survey, 294 specimens of small mammals were collected from the north of Iran between 2019 to 2023. Additionally, the abundance of zoonotic hosts and the rate of Leishmania prevalence reports in small mammals during the last ten years were analyzed to detect the relationship between reservoir distribution and parasitic infection. The collecting specimens belong to 12 families, 20 genera, and 26 species, and the most variety of species were collected from forest areas, while the lowest (4 species) were caught from urban and rural areas. According to the relative abundance index, the four most abundant small mammal species were Rhombomys opimus, Rattus norvegicus, Mus musculus, and Microtus obscurus. Rhombomys opimus, R. norvegicus, and Meriones libycus exhibit the highest levels of infection. This research, suggests comprehensive studies to detect Leishmania infection to determine new reservoirs in small mammals.
Synthetic insecticides are frequently used to manage disease vectors like houseflies, however, these chemicals are hazardous to human and animal health and not affordable to most people in rural areas. As a result, the demand for a substitute is pressing. The effectiveness of crude extracts of Moringa oleifera and Jatropha curcas as insecticides to control adult houseflies was examined in this study. This research was carried out at Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Department of Crop and Environmental Protection Insectary, Nigeria. M. oleifera and J. curcas leaves were used to formulate the crude extracts while cypermethrin and water were used as positive and negative controls respectively. These plants had significant insecticidal control of adult houseflies. When applied through feeding, the studied crude insecticides did not exhibit the same level of efficacy as cypermethrin following a 24-hour exposure. Feeding toxicity experiments showed that the application of 10 g/ml of M. oleifera leaf had greater insecticidal activity than other application rates. The insect sprays, 1 g/ml and 5 g/ml of extract from M. oleifera leaves and 5 g/ml and 10 g/ml of J. curcas leaves, efficiently competed with cypermethrin after 24 hours of application. Throughout the experimental trials, the efficacy of each observed concentrations —1 g/ml, 5 g/ml, and 10 g/ml—remained constant. Additionally, it was shown that applying the tested plant extracts by contact killed more quickly than other ways of application. In conclusion, controlling houseflies can be achieved through the use of crude plant extracts.
The worst pandemic in modern history occurred during the 1918 H1N1 Spanish Influenza epidemic. Two additional instances of influenza A (H5N1) viral infection in humans have been disclosed to WHO in the West Pacific Zone between July 12 and July 18, 2024. Merely three HA subtypes, namely H5, H7, and H9, have been identified and observed in domestic fowl across extensive geographic regions. The Asian H7N9 virus and the recently discovered avian-origin H5 A/goose/Guangdong/1/1996 (GsGd) virus have infected hundreds of humans and killed many of them. Although these infectious diseases have not expanded beyond affected individuals, they will start a pandemic if they develop the capacity to travel effectively from person to person, especially through the air. Thus, the focus of this analysis is on the characteristics of the Asian H7N9 and H5 GsGd viruses that facilitate airborne transmission and have recently resulted in zoonotic illnesses. Three waves of outbreaks of influenza have occurred across many continents due to the H5 influenza viruses, which migratory wild birds carry. The third wave of influenza outbreaks began in 2020 and is still underway. China, which produces the majority of the world's poultry, lost very few animals throughout the three phases of H5 avian influenza epidemics and almost completely eradicated the widespread H7N9 viruses that surfaced in 2013. Diverse nations have implemented distinct approaches to manage highly virulent avian influenza. While some countries, like China, have chosen a "cull plus vaccination" approach, many European and North America countries control highly virulent influenza by culling diseased and suspected birds (also known as the stamping-out technique). This paper provides an overview of the avian influenza virus, its management measures, and potential problems associated with an epidemic.
Arthropods especially ticks are important microbial vectors that work specific roles in medical and veterinary problems. The study was conducted on the ticks that carried Rickettsia spp. from the dog in different parts of the province of Hormozgan in Iran. Ticks were sampled from various locations all over the dogs’ bodies during the spring and summer of 2022. Ticks were collected and placed in sterile glass bottles containing 95% ethanol. For the extraction of DNA, ticks were initially air-dried on clean paper in a well-ventilated area following a brief ethanol 70% rinse. They were then processed using a commercially available DNA extraction kit (DNA Extraction Kit, MBST, and Iran) to extract DNA. Specific primers targeting the genes of Rickettsia spp. were used for polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR was employed to identify Rickettsia spp. The positive PCR product was sent for sequence analysis. The Maximum likelihood method in MEGA V.10 was used to analyze the sequencing data and phylogenetic analysis was conducted. Rickettsiae spp2 (n = 47; 4.25%; 95%Cl: 1.18% to 14.26%) positive for the gltA gene were detected. The identification of Rickettsia spp. in dog ticks is reported for the first time in Iran. These results showed that hard ticks act as vectors of Rickettsia spp. in Iran, which may have important public health implications in their areas of distribution.
Abstract Chandipura virus is an emerging arbovirus that poses significant public health challenges, especially in South Asia. Chandipura virus infection is one of the neglected diseases that is receiving limited attention. This virus primarily affects young children and has been associated with outbreaks of influenza-like illness and acute encephalitis, leading to high morbidity and mortality rates with death occurring within 48-72 h of the onset of symptoms in most of the affected populations. The outbreaks occur majorly during near-monsoon season especially in regions with favorable ecological conditions for sand fly proliferation. Currently, no vaccines or therapeutics are available, depicting the ongoing public health challenge posed by this emerging infectious virus. This review provides an overview of epidemiology, clinical features, and public health implications of Chandipura virus infections. Understanding the epidemiological patterns, clinical manifestations, and public health responses to the Chandipura virus is essential for developing effective preventive strategies and enhancing patient outcomes.
This article looks at the zoonotic paramyxovirus known as Hendra virus (HeV) was initially discovered in Hendra, Queensland, which is located in Australia, in 1994. In the Paramyxoviridae family and Mononegavirales order, HeV is the first member of the recently formed Henipavirus genus. It belongs to a distinct clade together with Nipah virus (NiV) and Cedar virus (CedV). Initially discovered during a severe outbreak affecting horses and humans, HeV has been implicated in numerous equine morbidity cases and occasional human transmission in Australia. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of HeV's clinical features, pathophysiology, transmission pathways, and diagnostic methodologies, emphasizing its substantial effect on animal and human health. Current human treatment strategies for HeV infection are primarily supportive, though emerging antiviral therapies show potential. Furthermore, the creation and application of vaccination for horses represent a crucial advancement in controlling the spread of this deadly virus. This review highlights the necessity for continued surveillance, research, and preventive measures to manage HeV outbreaks and safeguard public health.
Ticks are responsible for transmitting of pathogenic microorganisms during their feeding process on the hosts. They also cause significant losses in livestock production and, in many cases, the death of infected animals. In recent decades, many efforts have been carried out to combat ticks by using natural compounds. The present study aimed to evaluate the acaricidal effect of the hydroalcoholic extract of honey bee propolis against Haemaphysalis spp. in vitro. The acaricidal activities of the propolis were considered at concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 mg/ml and negative and positive controls (distilled water and Cypermethrin) following 10, 30, and 60 minutes of exposure. In this experiment the spraying and contact methods were used, and all tests were repeated twice. The chemical composition of propolis was identification by Gas ChromatographyMass Spectrometry (GC–MS). Data were analyzed using GraphPad Prism software version 5.0. According to the results, propolis had an acaricidal effect; however, this effect was more potent in the spraying. The propolis showed a 100% mortality rate at 100 mg/ml concentrations after 60 min exposure. GC-MS investigation showed that Heptanone (48.65%) was the main ingredient of propolis. The results indicated that the hydroalcoholic propolis extract carry potent acaricidal ingredients and might afford new natural acaricidal compounds for the control of Haemaphysalis spp.
Avian influenza viruses (AIV) are a highly contagious disease with economic and public health impact that belongs to the Orthomyxoviridae family. Wild migratory waterbirds are known as the main reservoirs of AVI which can distribute viruses to poultry and humans. Considering that Neor Lake, located in the southeast of Ardabil, is the habitat of migratory waterbirds from the countries around the region, there is a risk of transmission and distribution of influenza viruses from wild migratory birds. The present study aimed to monitor the seroprevalence of AI virus H5, H7, and H9 subtypes in migratory waterbirds of Neor Lake, Ardabil, northwest of Iran. A total of 101 blood samples were randomly collected from seven migratory bird species. HI, test was carried out on sera based on OIE protocol to detect H5, H7, and H9 subtypes. In this study, H5N2 and H7N1 antigens were used for the detection H5 and H7 subtypes, respectively. Suspicious samples on the first test were re-examined with H5N1 and H7N7 antigens. H9N2 antigen was used for the detection H9. Results of the tests performed on sera were negative for H5N1, H5N2, H7N1 and H7N7 viruses. Overall, 11.89 % of birds were seropositive for the H9N2 virus. The highest seroprevalence of the H9N2 virus was in Mallard (25 %) and the lowest seroprevalence was in Whooper swan (10.5 %). In this survey, despite seronegative evidence against H5 and H7 of subtypes, because of the prevalence of high pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses in countries of the region and some areas of Iran, it is recommended to periodically implement surveillance and control programs such as monitoring of circulating AIV in migratory waterbirds of Neor Lake
Avian influenza viruses represent a significant zoonotic threat, capable of infecting a variety of avian, animal, and human species. Over recent decades, numerous human epidemic and pandemic flu outbreaks have occurred due to zoonotic avian influenza viruses worldwide. Avian influenza viruses can be transmitted from birds to humans, both directly and indirectly. Waterfowl and domestic birds serve as reservoir hosts for all subtypes of influenza viruses. Pigs and some bird species, like quail, act as mixing vessels, facilitating viral reassortment. Farmers, meat processing workers, and poultry veterinarians are at significant risk of influenza infection due to their frequent contact with ill animals and contaminated environments. As a result, using vaccines and administering efficient antiviral drugs to sick poultry are critical steps for preventing the emergence of future influenza viral pandemics. This review endeavors to furnish a comprehensive exploration of the avian influenza virus and the urgent need for proactive preventive measures.
