(The Tradition of Representing the Deceased in the Roman Empire from the 1st to the 3rd Century CE in Light of Literary Sources and Selected Portraits from Rome and Egypt): This article discusses how the ancient Romans experienced the loss of their loved ones and what customs were associated with commemorating the dead. The aim of the paper is to show the variability in the way the dead were represented in the period from the 1st to the 3rd century CE. This is made possible thanks to analyses of various ancient written sources and several archaeological discoveries, including portraits from the Fayum, mummy masks and death masks.
(Hungarians as pars aliqua gentis Massagetum. Traces of erudition in the late antique and early medieval periods in the work of Archdeacon Thomas of Split. Part 2. The Perception of the Massagetean. 2) The “Hunnic” context, 1. Huns and Hungarians): Thomas of Split is considered to be the first known author in the territories ruled by the Arpads who identified Hungarians with Huns (however, such an identification was known in Europe from the beginning of the 10th century). Earlier, in the first decades of the 13th century, Attila was added to the genealogy of the ruling dynasty, even though there were statements in that century that excluded Attila and promoted Saint Stephen. This duality in the perception of Attila needs to be explained primarily by the pragmatism of the circles gathered around the royal court. The accounts known from other sources that link the motifs of the city, sword, and treasure of Attila with Hungary, once considered arguments proving the early development of a Hun-Hungarian identity there, arose outside the area of that monarchy and there is no indication that, except for the first account, they were known there. There is no evidence that shows the Archdeacon of Split knew at least the last two. Also, proper names and toponyms that resemble in terms of pronunciation, or in terms of spelling the name of Attila, recorded in the period preceding the creation of HISTORIA in testimonies in western Europe have nothing in common with the name of the ruler of the Huns. The identity of Huns and Hungarians, together with the references to both Attila as the ferocissimus persecutor christianorum (that could be understand as a synonym for flagellum Dei) and Hungarian invasions, all of which are to be found in Thomas’ work, seem to reflect the accounts of many medieval sources. At the same time, echoes of the last two motifs also appear in Hartvik’s LEGEND OF KING STEPHEN, which was known to Thomas.
(Venvs Caelestis on the coins of Julia Soaemias – problems regarding their interpretation in the historical context): This article concerns the coins of Julia Soaemias, the niece of Julia Domna and mother of Emperor Elagabalus, on the reverse of which the goddess Venus is depicted. The paper discusses the iconography and ideology of the coins and attempts to determine the role of this Roman goddess with regards to the self-presentation of Julia Soaemias, especially in the context of her son’s religious activities.
(The organisation of the prefecture of annona during the principate): Standing at the head of the grain administration, the equestrian prefect (praefectus annonae) was responsible during the early Empire for the process of supplying the capital with grain – the main staple of the Eternal City’s inhabitants’ diet. The article outlines the organisational background to the whole project, as well as the personal involvements of various emperors because of the political importance of the process of supplying Rome with grain.
In this brief paper 22 objects comprising Roman engraved gemstones and finger-rings made of both gold and glass are presented, all of which are curated in the Archaeological Museum of İznik in south-eastern Marmara, Turkey. These objects are significant as very few gemstones have been published from Bithynia. Two of the finds were excavated from a necropolis area of Nicaea. A catalogue of these artefacts will be provided at the end of this paper. Rzymskie gemmy i pierścionki ze złota i szkła z Nicei w Bitynii [południowo-wschodnia część regionu Marmara]): W tym krótkim artykule zaprezentowano 22 rzymskie grawerowane gemmy, złote i szklane pierścionki, które znajdują się w Muzeum Archeologicznym w İzniku w południowo-wschodniej części regionu Marmara w Turcji. Są to istotne eksponaty, ponieważ bardzo niewiele kamieni szlachetnych z Bitynii doczekało się publikacji na swój temat. Dwa spośród znalezisk odkryto na terenie nekropolii w Nicei. Na końcu artykułu zostały opisane złote i szklane pierścionki znajdujące się we wspomnianym muzeum. (Nikaia ve Bithynia’dan Roma Dönemi’ne Ait Bazı Gliptik Buluntular ile Altın ve Cam Yüzükler): Bu kısa yazıda İznik Arkeoloji Müzesi’nde saklanmakta olan Roma Dönemi’ne ait 22 adet gliptik örneği ile altın ve cam yüzükler tanıtılmaktadır. Bu çalışma Bithynia Bölgesi'nden şu ana değin çok az sayıda değerli taş yayınlandığı için önemlidir. İznik Müzesi'nde bulunan buluntulardan ikisi Nikaia Örenyeri’nin nekropollerinde ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Makalenin sonunda bu müzede bulunan altın ve cam yüzükler da tanıtılacaktır.
The Book De medicina of the Etymologiae of Isidore of Seville. Critical Reflections on the Organization of Knowledge in ‘Modern’ Edition and Medieval Codices): In this article, various Etymologiae codices are contrasted with the basal edition of Wallace Martin Lindsay in order to illustrate the edition’s shortcomings. For this purpose, the so far disregarded Cod. 25(2) from the Biblioteca de la Real Academia de la Historia in Madrid is also taken into account. The paper discusses the multilayered differences between Lindsay’s edition and the medieval codices regarding their organization of knowledge. However, despite these differences Lindsay’s work was deeply influential amongst researchers during the 20th century – scholars usually just adopted his idea of Isidore’s Etymologiae without further questioning. Finally, the article stresses the need for a revision of Lindsay’s edition using modern digital editing techniques, which take paratextual elements and printed incunabula into consideration. (Księga De medicina z dzieła Etymologiae Izydora z Sewilli. Krytyczne uwagi na temat organizacji wiedzy we „współczesnej” edycji i średniowiecznych kodeksach): Poszczególne kodeksy Etymologiae Izydora z Sewilli zostały w artykule zestawione z podstawowym wydaniem Wallace’a Martina Lindsaya w celu uwypuklenia niedoskonałości tej edycji. Z tego powodu uwzględniono również pomijany dotąd kodeks Cod. 25(2) z Biblioteki Królewskiej Akademii Historii w Madrycie. Artykuł omawia wielowarstwowe różnice pomiędzy wydaniem Lindsaya a średniowiecznymi kodeksami, zwłaszcza w zakresie organizacji wiedzy. Wydanie Lindsaya, mimo tych różnic, miało w ubiegłym wieku ogromny wpływ na badania historyczne – uczeni na ogół bez zastrzeżeń przyjmowali jego interpretację Etymologiae. W artykule podkreślono konieczność rewizji wydania Lindsaya z wykorzystaniem nowoczesnych technik edycji cyfrowej, które uwzględnią elementy paratekstowe oraz drukowane inkunabuły.
(Selected motifs on Italian coins from 1922–1943 as an example of the reception of Roman numismatic motifs. Expressing new content through references to tradition): This text is devoted to the phenomenon of the reception of iconographic motifs appearing on Italian coins from 1922–1943, which have analogies in Roman coinage. Iconographic motifs from Italian coins, despite their stylistic similarity to motifs from Roman coins, contain new elements that change the symbolic content. References to Roman patterns on Italian coins were not accidental and served to create the desired image of the country, which was often different from historical reality.
(Zenobia’s appearance in the Historia Augusta: associations and inspirations): This paper analyses the description of Zenobia’s appearance in the Historia Augusta (HA Tyr. Trig. 15.8, 30.15). Descriptions of what the rulers mentioned in Historia Augusta looked like have yet to be comprehensively researched. Most articles focus on general remarks about their authorship and the similarities to the work of Suetonius, with no attempt being made to analyse specific descriptions as a separate topic. Thus, individual features of Zenobia’s physiognomy have so far not been discussed in published literature concerning the Palmyrene queen. Her appearance is in several respects identical to that of Diadumenian (HA Dd. 3.2–3), which tells us a lot about the creation of the passages by the editor of the Historia Augusta. Moreover, what has not been noticed in the literature before is that Zenobia's appearance resembles that of Giddenis, a woman from one of Plautus' comedies (Pl. Poen. 1112–1113). Therefore, this article is not only important with regards to research concerning the female body in antiquity, but it also draws attention to the previously unexplored influence of Plautus on the Historia Augusta.
(Tiberius’ Actions in Selected Regions as Instruments of Diplomatic Policy from 20 BCE to 37 CE): This article is devoted to the diplomatic activities of Tiberius which can be divided into two main phases. The first period concerns the time before Tiberius became emperor (20 BCE–14 CE), whilst the second relates to his time as ruler of the Empire (14–37). The composition of the work is geographical, because in some regions Tiberius acted as a diplomatic envoy of Augustus and later as the emperor. The paper discusses his role and how effective his actions were with regards to the following regions: (I) Armenia and Parthia; (II) Pannonia; (III) Germania; (IV) Thrace; (V) Cappadocia, Commagene, Amanus and Pontus; (VI) Greek cities; (VII) Palestine and Syria.
(The ancient tradition concerning Pythagoras of Samos’ role as the founder of physiognomy): This paper collects and analyzes ancient sources that refer to Pythagoras of Samos as the founder of physiognomy. Interest in physiognomy, which deals with the relationship between the body and the spirit, has become more popular over the last few years; however, many aspects of research into the topic are still obscure and worthy of further study. Physiognomy was assumed by ancient authors to be the method by which candidates were selected to enter the Pythagorean community, used by the Greek philosopher and his followers. Information about Pythagoras, who – by simply looking at somebody – could recognize their character appears, in the works of Aulus Gellius, Hippolytus, Porphyry, Iamblichos, Proclos and Olympiodorus. Apart from discussing testimonia about Pythagoras and his physiognomic examinations, the text explores the role of physiognomy during the selection process for the Pythagorean community in order to provide a better understanding of elite traditions within society. The paper also supplies further insight with regards to the methodology behind physiognomical surveys, which were popular during antiquity.
(Defensor civitatis. Legal protection authority in the later Roman Empire): In the 4th century, an official with the title defensor civitatis became widespread in the Roman Empire. His task was to protect the poor from administrative injustices. Noteworthy were his powers regarding taxation, which served the state’s fiscal goals by protecting sources of tax revenue. Initially, the defensor enjoyed a certain level of independence, but over time the position became subordinated to the local elites. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the original function of this official was distorted.
(The dynastic politics of Septimius Severus in the context of the Roman civil war of 193–197 AD – the testimony of coins): This text is devoted to the dynastic politics of Septimius Severus in the context of the Roman civil war of 193–197 AD. The coins minted on behalf of the emperor and his family during this conflict provide the source basis for the discussion. Their propagandistic significance enables the main changes that took place in the dynastic policy of this ruler to be reconstructed. They also provide an insight into the ideological basis of Septimius Severus' power in the first years of his reign.
(What does “superiores barbari” mean in Vita Marci Antonini [14.1])?: The phrase Profecti tamen sunt paludati ambo imperatores et Victualis et Marcomannis cuncta turbantibus, aliis etiam gentibus, quae pulsae a superioribus barbaris fugerant, nisi reciperentur, bellum inferentibus was translated by David Magie in the Loeb Classical Library series as “Clad in the military cloak the two emperors finally set forth, for now not only were the Victuali and Marcomanni throwing everything into confusion, but other tribes, who had been driven on by the more distant barbarians and had retreated before them, were ready to attack Italy if not peaceably received.” The term “by the more distant barbarians” follows the interpretation of the words pulsae a superioribus barbaris adopted by Guillaume de Moulines in his 1783 French translation. A similar line of interpretation with an additional indication of the distant north was also proposed by Karl Mannert in 1792. This unrest was supposed to have translated into the general agitation of the Germanic peoples of the Danube limes, contributing to the launching of attacks on the Roman side of the Danube River. A semantic analysis of the adjective superior, however, indicates that it does not mean further away, let alone from the distant north, but only: higher in position, upper, i.e. in the case of ethnic names it refers either to certain barbarians having the upper hand over others, or to the barbarians mentioned above in the source text. Consequently, the superiores barbari that appear in the sentence do not have much to do with the Polish lands, as it is probably precisely the Victuals of the Dacian section of the limes and the Marcomanni of the Pannonian section who took the upper hand over other barbarians in their regions close to the Danube.
The functioning of Silla in the Three Kingdoms Period. Selected issues inspired by the television series Hwarang [2016]): Worldwide interest in Korean popular culture, especially television series produced in Seoul, has continued to grow since it first came to the attention of international audiences during the 1990s. This is due, among other things, to the numerous costume productions that not only provide entertainment but also popularise the history of the Korean Peninsula, which affords local politicians a specific tool for conducting mod- ern historical policy. Meanwhile, despite the growing popularity of K-drama, Poland still lacks the scientific basis that would allow the ancient history of Korea to be studied. To fill this gap, the author of this article decided to present key issues related to the Three Kingdoms Period (313–668) and the political, social, economic and cultural functioning of the Korean state of Silla. Since the successes of this small country were determined by a combination of factors, including: the nongjajeongbon policy aimed at the welfare of the village and its inhabitants, the hwabaek council with its controlling and mediating function, the golpum bone-rank system that ensured social stability, as well as (shown by the producers of the television series Hwarang from 2016) the chivalrous ethos of members of the elite Hwarang Corps, which remains one of the most important national symbols of Korea to this day.
(The Bible as a research source on trade between the Graeco-Roman World and South and East Asia): The Bible mentions several luxury goods (sapphire, emerald, carnelian, topaz, silk, ivory, spikenard, cinnamon, amomum) that were imported by the Roman Empire from South and East Asia via various routes during the 1st-4th centuries CE. The list of goods that appear in the pages of the New Testament testifies to the sound understanding of economic realities that were displayed by the biblical authors and corresponds to the knowledge of Rome's trade contacts with Asian countries.
