In equestrian competitions, a measuring device passing beneath the noseband on the dorsal nasal bone is used to determine noseband laxity. A supplementary location may be useful should the horse become distressed, or if it is apparent that the outcome of the noseband check is influenced by underlying dorsal nasal anatomy. The study aimed to (1) design and evaluate the application of a lateral noseband measuring tool; and (2) quantify equine head morphology beneath the noseband. A lateral measuring tool was designed (equivalent to 1.5 finger equivalent (Fe)) and tested on thirty-one horses. The lateral tool was inserted beneath the noseband at two locations: the lateral nasal bone and lateral maxilla (rostral to the facial crest). With three repeats per location, the outcome (pass/fail) was recorded. In a subset of twelve randomly selected horses, a 20-mm marker was placed rostral to the noseband. Maxilla morphology beneath the noseband was determined using 3D light scanning. Differences between the left and right sides of the maxilla were determined in 1-cm intervals caudal to the dorsal nasal bone. Compared with 2.0 Fe, the number of unsuccessful lateral tool passes increased significantly in the lateral nasal region at 1.0/0.5/0.0 Fe (all P < 0.001). For the lateral maxilla, a significant increase occurred only at 0.0 Fe (P < 0.001). Significant inter-horse lateral anatomical variations existed, but minimal left-right anatomical differences for the lateral nasal bone were found (P = 0.478). Lateral locations were subject to considerable anatomical variability and false positives and are therefore not recommended for determining the laxity of the noseband.
Equine turnout areas are commonly designed to maximize open space. However, research in more naturalistic settings suggests that horses use landscape features selectively. This study examined how horses' spatial use patterns vary across turnout designs with different levels of structural complexity, and whether the use of specific features differs according to behavioral state and time of day. Horses (N = 26) at four Dutch yards (A–D; size range: 6,477 m²–37,489 m²) differing in landscape design were monitored for 10 consecutive days using Hoofstep® GPS–IMU sensors. Behavior was automatically classified into four categories (Eating, Resting, Active, Highly Active). Spatial preprocessing was conducted in Python, with ArcGIS used for cartographic checking, yielding a final dataset of 3,856.50 monitoring hours. Feature selection relative to availability was quantified using Manly's Selection Ratios (MSR). Log-transformed MSR values were analyzed using yard-specific linear mixed models. Landscape features significantly influenced spatial selection across all yards (A: F(12,940) = 98.199, P < 0.001; B: F(7,1460) = 124.663, P < 0.001; C: F(4,273) = 19.326, P < 0.001; D: F(6,498) = 38.691, P < 0.001). Behavior × landscape feature interactions were also significant in all models (all P < 0.001), indicating behavior-specific spatial selection. Significant interactions involving time of day were observed primarily in the more structurally heterogeneous environments. Findings indicate that behavior-specific spatial organization was fundamentally shaped by structural environment. Landscape heterogeneity therefore appears to support behavioral agency by providing horses with functionally distinct spatial options. These findings support landscape design as an important consideration for equine welfare, with potential co-benefits for biodiversity.
Exercise is a recognized time cue for circadian rhythms, influencing sleep architecture and quality across diverse human populations. While its timing and intensity affect sleep outcomes in humans, little is known about how exercise impacts sleep in horses, particularly those with early morning or late evening workloads, as is common in working or competition horses. This study sought to explore this relationship in stabled horses experiencing changes to their workload patterns. Five geldings housed at Hartpury Equestrian Centre were observed across three exercise phases (normal, increased, and return to normal) using an ABA design. Sleep-related behaviors were recorded overnight using closed-circuit television (CCTV) equipment and analyzed using a validated ethogram with continuous focal sampling. Inter-observer reliability tests confirmed consistent behavioral scoring, and data were analyzed using nonparametric statistics to compare behavioral time budgets, as well as postures, across phases. Horses spent the majority of their time awake, followed by sleep and rest, across all exercise phases. Increased exercise led to significantly longer sleep bouts (Phase B: 10.79 min vs. Phase A: 5.33 min, P < 0.05) and more frequent rest episodes. Sleep postures also changed, specifically sternal recumbency, where Phases B and C were statistically different from Phase A. Results also indicated a residual effect of exercise on sleep and rest patterns, with sleep patterns remaining altered even after a return to normal exercise (Phase C: 8.98 min), indicating prolonged recovery effects. Findings demonstrate that exercise-induced changes in sleep architecture persist beyond the intervention period, highlighting the importance of recovery planning in equine management and supporting the need for larger-scale studies to disentangle the relationship between sleep and exercise to optimize equine performance and well-being.
Stabled horses are managed within a domestic environment, where the effects of artificial lighting and bedding on sleep have been reported. Beyond the environment, equine husbandry practices such as rugging or clipping are influential on equine thermoregulation. However, the influence of these practices on sleep and related behaviors is unknown, despite the link between core body temperature and the occurrence of sleep. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the viability of using novel temperature recording equipment to determine whether a relationship between under-rug temperature and sleep-related behavior could be detected. Under-rug temperatures were measured using Thermachron iButtons© at 10-minute intervals across five nights, while closed-circuit television camera equipment enabled continuous focal observations of sleep-related behavior. Duration of behavioral states according to a pre-determined ethogram was recorded between the hours of 00:00 and 07:00 for four stabled horses. Overnight environmental temperatures were reported between -6 °C and 4 °C. Mean under-rug temperature from all horses across five nights was 22.91 ± 0.12 °C (minimum 14.0 °C, maximum 34.0 °C) and was different between nights and between individual horses. No significant relationships were identified between under-rug temperatures and total duration of behavioral states. While the iButtons demonstrated the capacity to measure temperatures, several recommendations are made for future studies based on this foundational work. The relationship between under-rug temperature and sleep behavior warrants further investigation, which in the future could include data on sleep onset or sleep quality.
Chronic pain (CP) in equestrians may disrupt rider–horse movement patterns, communication, and welfare. Physical activity (PA) is used to manage CP in other populations. Equestrians engage in high PA across equestrian (EqA), barn work (BW), and non-EqA domains, yet still report high CP rates. This study aims to explore risk and protective PA factors across domains associated with self-reported CP in American equestrians. Secondary analysis of a cross-sectional survey of adult American equestrians (n = 1,612). All variables were categorical (EqA, BW, and non-EqA volume; participation level; BW tasks). Chi-square tests informed forward binary logistic regression examining odds (ORs) of reporting CP across PA domains. The sample's participation level was 23.0% professionals, 44.5% amateurs, and 32.5% recreational equestrians, with 45% experiencing CP, most commonly in the back (27.8%). Recreational riders had lower odds of experiencing CP (OR = 0.6, P < 0.001), chronic lower-leg (OR = 0.47, P = 0.004), and neck (OR = 0.57, P = 0.01) pain than professionals. Regardless of participation level, equestrians engaging in categories ≤5 hours/week of EqA had lower odds (OR = 0.46–0.62, P = 0.001–0.04) of reporting chronic back pain compared with those spending ≥15.5 hours/week. Regular running was protective against reporting CP, particularly in the back (OR = 0.62, P = 0.007) and pelvic (OR = 0.50, P = 0.02) regions. Participation level emerged as the primary risk factor for CP, followed by EqA volume for chronic back pain. Higher EqA workloads may exceed adaptive capacity regarding chronic back pain, underscoring the need for context-specific prevention strategies addressing workload management, such as physical training programs scaled to participation level and consideration of equipment fit (i.e., saddle).
Therapy devices are widely marketed to horse owners, claiming to improve well-being, support musculoskeletal function, and aid injury rehabilitation, though many claims lack scientific evidence. This study evaluated the immediate (part A) and four-week (part B) effects of a heated vibration massage pad applied to the thoracic epaxial region on mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT), behavior, and kinematics of horses. A randomized, blinded design was employed with a convenience sample of 10 riding horses in treatment and control groups. Inertial motion sensors and limb markers captured kinematic data, behavior was analyzed using EquiFACS, and MNT was measured using pressure algometry. Immediately (part A) following application of the heated vibration massage pad, there were no significant changes in MNT, behavior, or dorsoventral range of motion at the poll, wither, pelvis, or tuber coxae during walk or trot, nor in minimum difference, maximum difference, and range of motion at the poll, wither, and pelvis in trot, in the treatment or the control group (all P > 0.05). Similarly, stride length and duration in walk remained unchanged. However, in trot, the treatment group exhibited minor reductions in stride length (P = 0.025, d = 0.2) and hindlimb retraction (P = 0.005, d = 0.5), with increased stride duration (P = 0.044, d = −0.17). After four weeks of regular use (part B), the treatment group showed significant increases in stride length during trot (309.8 cm ± 37.8 vs. 334.4 cm ± 35.1, P = 0.017, d = 1.38) as well as increased forelimb retraction, hindlimb protraction, and retraction. While immediate effects were negligible, consistent use of the heated vibration massage pad may enhance limb kinematics, suggesting its potential as a convenient addition to maintenance regimes for riding horses.
Standard equine management practices contribute to the high prevalence of strongyles and to the need for deworming. Horse performance can be evaluated by following early body development. This study aimed to determine the behavior and body growth associated with strongyle fecal egg count (FEC) in 25 Thoroughbred foals aged from birth to 10 months in southern Brazil. Body weight, withers height, and FEC were determined monthly, and foals' behavior/personality was recorded twice daily by resident veterinarians following standard welfare protocols. A generalized linear mixed model was used to analyze body growth and FEC variance. There was a high correlation between weight gain before six months of age and between height and age. Although males exhibited greater variability in weight and height, no statistically significant differences were observed between sexes (P > 0.05). There was no significant association between strongyle FEC and body weight or height in any animals. Descriptive behavioral analysis revealed that only four animals were treated based on behavior/personality alterations and clinical signs (i.e., abdominal discomfort). The data showed a null-to-weak correlation between FEC and the animals' age (R² = −0.025 for females and R² = 0.168 for males). Moreover, foals had a low (0.206) FEC repeatability coefficient for sex and age, while individual overdispersion indicated a high (3.919) value. This information is crucial when designing health protocols for horses, as the expected rise in FEC after treatment may indicate a new infection that accompanies a suppressive drug strategy. These preliminary data showed that foals experienced steady body growth, independent of FEC, allowing selective treatment to be guided by a combination of periodic clinical and analytical parasitological examinations. Furthermore, this study highlights the intrinsic influence of constant veterinary care and the protection of horse health as a strong component of farm resilience.
Horse sports face public scrutiny, particularly regarding concerns about horse welfare. Understanding how the physical positioning of the horse's head and neck while being ridden affects behavior is crucial for improving welfare standards. This study aimed to investigate the influence of head–neck position (HNP) in ridden horses–specifically, the vertical and poll angles–on conflict behavior (CB). Furthermore, it aimed to identify a critical threshold at which HNP significantly affects behavioral outcomes. Elite dressage horses were observed during warm-ups and tests at competitions, and horses presented in educational videos were analyzed to examine the relationship between HNP and CB. A total of 191 rides were analyzed, HNP parameters (angle to the vertical of nasal plane, poll angle, and shoulder angle) and CB indicators (e.g., unusual oral behaviors and tail swishing) were recorded over 3-minute intervals using Observer XT (Noldus). Data were analyzed using general linear mixed-effects models, with CB (sum of all behaviors) as the response variable and horse-rider-ID as a random effect. Both poll and vertical angles had significant negative effects on CB, indicating that horses exhibited more CB when these angles decreased (p < 0.001, df = 139.64/137.28, respectively). Shoulder angle also had a significant impact on CB in one model (p = 0.014, df = 136.61). A vertical angle of -7.5° behind the vertical was identified as the cut-off value associated with an increase in CB. Stallions exhibited more CB than mares and geldings (p < 0.001, df = 73.16). The models demonstrated good fit, with consistently non-significant effects of age, breed, and bit type. Optimizing HNP during riding is crucial for enhancing behavioral well-being and the overall welfare of dressage horses in competitive settings.
Understanding barriers that United Kingdom (UK) horse owners face in optimizing welfare-friendly management choices is key to providing a good life for horses. Equine management is often based on tradition, and horse owners may unknowingly rely on outdated practices and lack awareness of modern welfare assessment frameworks, including the Five Domains Model. Resistance to change can arise from concerns over safety, cost, and tradition, with uncertainty prompting a return to familiar routines. Identifying implementation barriers allows for the development of practical, owner-focused strategies to support enhanced positive mental states. Qualitative data from a 2021 online survey of UK horse owners and carers (n = 258) were analyzed for the first time. Responses (n = 247) to the question, "What barriers or limitations do you see to avoiding a negative mental state and promoting a positive mental state in horses?" were thematically analyzed. Themes that emerged were "Livery Yard Restrictions," "Lack of Resources," "Lack of Knowledge and Education," "Tradition and Performance Pressures," "Natural Living Conditions," and "Health and Welfare Concerns." Livery yard policies and traditional practices often limited individualized equine management intended to promote positive mental states. Many highlighted insufficient social interactions and managing health issues as key challenges. Barriers to avoiding negative and promoting positive equine mental states were multifaceted and often systemic, although these data were collected in 2019 and the sample may include those with an existing interest in this topic. Addressing identified barriers requires targeted education, practical support, and collaboration with livery establishments to enable more individualized equine management to promote a good life for horses.
The theory of conditionality originates from the field of social thinking, specifically from the study of normative aspects that are considered conditional. It examines legitimate transgressions and has numerous applications, particularly in road safety. The originality of this study lies in applying this theory to the equestrian world to highlight "normative latitudes" and the risks associated with the human-horse relationship. The main tool used was a Conditional Scripts Questionnaire (CSQ), based on scenarios and situations adapted to the equestrian world. This tool consisted of 7 scenarios: riding helmet, protective vest, riding boots, riding pants, snaffle bridle, protective horse boots, and safety rules. In each scenario, several conditional situations were evaluated, such as "The equine partner belongs to a riding club." A link to an online questionnaire was completed by 46 riders recruited using the snowball sampling technique. The results of the CSQ, analyzed through chi-square testing and quartile analysis, revealed a significant difference in the ordinal distribution of the seven scenarios when considered collectively. The scenario with the lowest conditionality was wearing riding pants, while the scenario with the highest conditionality was the use of a protective vest. Although each scenario varied in its level of conditionality, the degree of intra-scenario conditionality remained consistent across all situations. Additional measures related to risk perception suggested that certain contexts, such as riding one's horse, tended to increase conditionality.
Little is known about how institutionalized structures in Germany and agrarian traditions in Iceland influence riders’ motivational profiles and shape participation norms. In this study, we examine the extent to which differences in equestrianism depend on the cultural context and type of rider, thereby closing a gap in cross-national research on sport motives. A representative sample of German (n = 788) and Icelandic (n = 145) riders completed the Bernese Motive and Goal Inventory (BMZI). Group differences were analyzed using effect sizes, and a two-way ANOVA was conducted to examine interactions between country and rider type. Results revealed that competitive riders in both countries prioritized competition and external image, while leisure riders emphasized intrinsic motives such as nature engagement and well-being (e.g., Icelandic leisure vs. competitive, d = 0.44). German riders, supported by institutionalized sport structures, reported higher activation and aesthetic motives (German leisure vs. Icelandic leisure, d = 0.45), whereas Icelandic riders, influenced by regulatory challenges, prioritized heritage and practical horsemanship, with leisure riders reporting stronger distraction motives (d = 0.59). Cross-country interactions emerged, including German competitive riders valuing horse handling more than their Icelandic counterparts (d = 0.74). Perceived femininity of equestrianism was significantly higher among German riders (d = 2.47), and fitness and physique motives were low across all groups. These findings underscore the importance of sociocultural frameworks and gender perceptions in shaping equestrian motivations, advancing debates on how sports adapt to local identities, and informing more inclusive participation models.
Environmental enrichment has the potential to cultivate positive equine welfare through agency-driven opportunities for socialization, foraging, and exploration. Although the beneficial impacts of enrichment are well documented for captive wildlife, there is comparatively little research on the applications and impacts of enrichment for domestic horses. Our aim was to understand the use and perceived impacts of enrichment for group-housed horses through a global survey of barn owners/managers. The survey asked questions on demographics, horses, and facility characteristics, as well as the use and perceived effects of foraging, structural, and sensory enrichment on horse behavior and welfare (e.g., perceived effects on health issues and stereotypies). We received 132 responses from 16 countries. Data were summarized using descriptive statistics and visualizations. Fisher's exact tests were used to explore the significance of reported behavior changes, and a chi-squared test was used to examine the relationship between the size of the turnout area and the number of enrichment elements. Enrichment elements providing horses with foraging opportunities were the most prevalent type of enrichment, while offering structural diversity and sensory stimulation were also much-utilized enrichment strategies. Respondent data suggested a significant, direct relationship between the prevalence of enrichment and positive behavior change (p < 0.001). Respondents reported an increase in natural behaviors since the onset of enrichment provision, including increased foraging (66.7%), play (65.2%), and locomotion (78.8%). They also reported their horses to be calmer (forage enrichment 30.5%, structural enrichment 13.8%, sensory enrichment 7.4%), more social (forage enrichment 9.4%, structural enrichment 8.9%, sensory enrichment 2.8%), and more confident when being handled on the ground and under saddle (structural enrichment 8.1%). Most respondents reported that providing enrichment elements improved the health issues their horses were dealing with (hoof problems 88.7%, laminitis 91.7%, EMS 89.6%, lameness 93.5%, equine asthma 88.5%, others 88.9%) and indicated decreased frequencies of stereotypic behaviors (weaving 100%, box/fence walking 100%, crib-biting 66.6%, others 50%). No significant relationship was found between the size of the turnout area and the number of enrichment items (p = 0.33). Overall, these findings suggest positive impacts of environmental enrichment on the behavior and welfare of group-housed horses, warranting further research as a potential welfare-enhancing tool.
Previous studies have shown that artificial lighting can reduce the duration of anestrus in the horse. Here, we investigated whether age can affect the date of first ovulation in mares subjected to an artificial lighting regimen beginning before the winter solstice. Mares (n = 224) of different breeds aged 1 to 27 years were divided into five groups by age: a) 1–5 years (n = 71), b) 6–10 years (n = 38), c) 11–15 years (n = 44), d) 16–20 years (n = 30), and e) 21–27 years (n = 16). 25 mares apparently failed to respond to treatment and were excluded from the analysis. Light treatment began on a mean starting date of November 27. Ovulation was determined through transrectal ultrasonography at regular intervals. The age of the mare significantly influenced the date of first ovulation, with mares aged 1 to 5 years ovulating significantly earlier than all other age groups (P < 0.01). The interval from the start of treatment to ovulation in this group was shorter than for all other groups. A significantly larger proportion of mares in the youngest group (25.7%) ovulated before February 1 compared to all other age groups combined (6.9%). The proportion of mares that failed to respond to treatment was significantly larger in mares older than 15 years (P < 0.01). These results show that under winter artificial lighting, first ovulation occurs earlier in young mares, likely due to a lessened entrainment to the natural photoperiod.
Background: Sleep deprivation negatively affects metabolism and the immune system. Among other factors, this condition disrupts homeostasis by altering the gut microbiota, which plays a crucial role in maintaining physiological balance in humans and rodents, including sleep regulation. However, to date, no study has directly investigated this interaction in horses. Aims: This review aims to examine the interplay between sleep deprivation and gut microbiota from a translational perspective, emphasizing the gut–brain axis and the roles of sleep and microbiota in equine health. Materials and Methods: Original research articles, meta-analyses, and literature reviews relevant to the topic were included. Database searches were conducted using carefully selected keywords to ensure comprehensive coverage of pertinent literature. Results: Sixty-three studies were reviewed, including original studies, systematic and narrative reviews, observational studies, randomized clinical trials, and experimental investigations, published between 1975 and 2025. Sleep deprivation was found to alter the gut microbiota, increasing inflammatory markers and modifying metabolic pathways, predisposing the organism to disease. Conversely, the gut microbiota also influences sleep, indicating a bidirectional relationship. Although studies on horses are lacking, preliminary evidence suggests the presence of the gut–brain axis in this species. Sleep disruption may therefore negatively influence the gut microbiota of horses, as reported in other animals. Conclusion: Sleep deprivation negatively affects the body by altering the gut microbiota in humans and rodents. Although evidence links gut microbiota and sleep to equine health, important gaps remain regarding how sleep deprivation affects microbial balance, inflammation, metabolism, and disease risk.
Cytokines are glycoproteins responsible for cellular communication, influenced by exercise. Their levels vary depending on the intensity and type of physical activity in both humans and horses. This review aimed to assess the effects of various types and intensities of exercise on the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. A systematic search (2000–2022) was performed using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Studies involving horses (n = 3) and/or humans (n = 21) undergoing physical activity were selected, resulting in 24 eligible articles. IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10 levels increased after high-intensity exercise in both species, while moderate-intensity activity yielded more variable results. Some cytokines, such as IL-1β and IL-17, exhibited species-specific differences. Cytokine production is influenced by exercise intensity and duration. The observed differences between horses and humans suggest physiological divergences, warranting further research in the field of exercise immunology and other related disciplines. As a potential outcome of this work, we propose that horses could serve as an appropriate translational animal model for human athletes in exercise immunology, justifying a more comprehensive comparative approach.
Equine-Facilitated Learning (EFL) is a non-riding program that involves working with horses and relies on experiential learning for the client. EFL is used to facilitate increased awareness of individual consciousness by using equine-oriented activities to obtain positive outcomes, with emotional, social, physical, and cognitive goals. Current research suggests that EFL develops social skills and improves a sense of self in a range of clients from their own point of view. Given that client accounts may offer a limited perspective in some contexts, this case study explores facilitator insights to deepen understanding of EFL benefits. Taking an inductive approach, a single 2-hour semi-structured interview was conducted with an EFL facilitator who has owned and managed an EFL establishment since 2011. Thematic analysis identified three higher-order themes: emotional intelligence development, behavioral benefits, and the impact of the triadic dynamic: the facilitator, horse, and client. These themes further revealed the facilitator's perception that the client's emotional intelligence developed through mindfulness, introspective awareness, confidence, and empowerment, leading to behavioral benefits in both physical changes and socialization. Finally, the importance of the triadic dynamic highlighted the role played by both the facilitator and the horse in mirroring, creating a safe space, and signposting for the client. This study adds an additional aspect to the current body of scientific research on the role that the facilitator and horse play in achieving the positive outcomes described. Future research should aim to gain further perspectives from those involved in facilitating EFL and to enhance understanding of the role the horse plays in the EFL process.
Background and Aims: The sustainability of equestrianism, as a sport and as a way of life, is currently in jeopardy. This is primarily due to the growing societal concerns regarding equine welfare in performance sport and the associated unethical human behavior. Expanding upon a growing body of research and action within the sector, this study looks to those who stand in the middle of the arena to shed light on the antecedents and consequences of poor horsemanship and to explore how the industry as a whole can work together to ensure a sustainable future. Materials and Methods: Sixteen British Horse Society Fellows and/or United Kingdom Coaching Certificate Level 4 coaches were recruited for this qualitative study. Participants took part in guided roundtable discussions, which were audio/video recorded, transcribed, and then analyzed using thematic analysis. Results: Three high-order themes were identified. First, Individual Responsibilities in Equestrian Sport, with subthemes of human behavior change, advocating for the horse, and the coach as an ambassador for best practice. Second, Comprehensive Equestrian Coach Education, with subthemes of the role of mentorship, vicarious and continual learning, technical and coaching competencies, and formal coach education. Third, Collective Responsibilities in Equestrian Sport, with subthemes of horsemanship education, challenges and opportunities for sustainability, and cohesive practice for horse welfare. Conclusion: Coaches offer a vital source of counsel and are key influencers within the equestrian community and, therefore, should be considered instrumental in creating a sustainable future for equestrian sport from the inside out. To this end, equestrian coach education must ensure that, alongside technical and coaching competencies, the ability to demonstrate and teach the skills and values that provide psychological safety for humans involved in equestrianism is also taught and assessed.
The thoracolumbar profile is of interest in relation to saddle design and saddle fit. Flexible-curve rulers have previously been used to gather thoracolumbar profiles in horses; however, 3D light scanning offers a potential non-contact alternative method to estimate the cross-sectional shape of the region in greater detail. The aims of this study were to (1) describe the thoracolumbar profiles of endurance and dressage horses using 3D light scanning and (2) compare the wither profiles to saddle manufacturers' gullet bar angles. 3D light scans of the thoracolumbar region were obtained from 23 fit and competing Arabian endurance horses and 21 dressage horses of mixed breed competing at advanced or higher, each from two different stables. Markers were placed by palpation on the caudal scapula (V1) and T18 (V4). Images were imported into Meshmixer. A transversely oriented plane cut was taken at the level of the marker of the left caudal scapula, perpendicular to the back surface (V1), and at the level of the marker at T18. Two further cuts were made at the base of the withers (V2) and the lowest point/midpoint of the back (V3). The mean transverse back angle at V1 was 87 ± 8° for the endurance horse sample and 99 ± 10° for the dressage horse sample (P < 0.0001), and at V4 was 141 ± 7° (endurance) and 144 ± 6° (dressage) (P < 0.0001). For both endurance horses and dressage horses, there was a significant effect of location on back transverse angle (V1 to V4; P < 0.001), with V1 the narrowest and V4 the widest. While there is little consistency in what gullet angle a "medium" gullet bar would actually be, the range of angles measured at the shoulder in the present study reflects the most common gullet sizes offered by six manufacturers of English saddles.
Aims: Equine acupressure therapies possess an abundance of acclaimed anecdotal evidence; however, scientific validation remains limited. This investigation aimed to explore the effect of manual acupressure on the mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) of the equine epaxial musculature. Materials and Methods: The study design was a randomized, single crossover trial involving ten horses (five geldings and five mares) of various ages (16 ± 4.49 years). Horses were split into two groups and received a 10-minute acupressure or sham treatment. Nine acupressure points were selected and treated with 30 seconds of direct light pressure followed by six full circles. Each horse was assessed for points of sensitivity at three points bilaterally along the epaxial musculature, before, immediately after, and one day after the acupressure or sham treatment. A two-week washout period was implemented; the groups were reversed, and the protocol was repeated. Data were both parametric and nonparametric; therefore, to ascertain whether differences occurred in MNT values across the time points, a series of repeated measures ANOVAs and Friedman's analyses were undertaken. Where significant differences were found, post hoc Wilcoxon tests with Bonferroni correction identified how MNTs differed with time. Further paired t-tests or Wilcoxon rank tests determined whether differences occurred in the percentage of change between the treatment and control groups. Results: The results of the study suggest that acupressure elicits an immediate increase in MNTs in the epaxial musculature, most significantly at the thoracolumbar region. A decrease in this response could indicate lower sensitivity of the back, allowing better back kinematics and possibly improved performance.
Kinematics is a noninvasive technique for observing locomotion characteristics in equines and other species through video analysis. The present study aimed to identify the gallop characteristics of the Colombian Criollo horse and verify whether they exhibit a suspension phase through kinematic analysis. Horses were ridden and filmed from a lateral perspective while galloping along a five-meter linear trajectory during an official breeding event. Movement was analyzed via Windows Movie Maker® software, which enables the examination of 30 frames per second to observe the support and lift sequences of the thoracic and pelvic limbs throughout the trajectory. The data revealed 10 cycles of asymmetric gaits classified as marching, with an average speed of 2.29 m per second (SD = 0.64 m/s). The horses executed cycles consisting of anterior and posterior tripedal support (100%), anterior and posterior monopedal support (97.5%), diagonal bipedal support (95%), posterior bipedal support (87.5%), lateral bipedal support (30%), and quadrupedal support (17.5%). None of the sequences resembled the three-beat canter variations. They did not conform to the characteristic cross- or rotational four-beat gallop patterns, as the horses did not exhibit a suspension moment. Therefore, the Colombian Criollo horse's gallop is distinct from that of other breeds because of its marching nature and absence of a suspension phase.
