Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health challenge, particularly due to the increasing emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The discovery of novel antituberculosis agents with new mechanisms of action is therefore urgently needed. Xanthone derivatives have attracted considerable attention due to their broad range of biological activities, including antibacterial and antituberculosis effects. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of xanthone derivatives as inhibitors of serine/threonine protein kinase (PknG) of M. tuberculosis through an in silico molecular docking approach. The crystal structure of the target protein (PDB ID: 4Y0X) was obtained from the Protein Data Bank and prepared using Chimera and Discovery Studio. Ligand structures were designed and optimized using ChemDraw, HyperChem, and GaussView, and molecular docking was performed using AutoDock Vina. The binding interactions were analyzed using LigPlot+ to identify key amino acid residues involved in ligand–protein interactions. The docking results showed that Hydrazone-Xhantone exhibited the highest binding affinity toward PknG as a value of –8.9 kcal/mol, which was slightly better than native ligand (–8.8 kcal/mol). Hydrazone-Xhantone formed stable hydrogen bonds with key active site residues, including SER106, GLY131, and ASP191, with bond lengths ranging from 2.06 to 2.16 Å. Other candidates showed lower binding affinities and fewer stabilizing interactions. The results indicate that Hydrazone-Xhantone has promising potential as a PknG inhibitor and may serve as a lead compound for further antituberculosis drug development. This study highlights the usefulness of molecular docking as a preliminary screening tool in the rational design of new antituberculosis agents.
Boron group-based materials, with impressive capacity utilization and self-healing ability, provide better alternatives for alkali metal ion batteries that exhibit all-round performance with the balance of energy/power density and cycling stability. Germanium carbide (GeC) has been designed and characterized as an anode electrode for lithium (Li), boron (B), aluminum (Al) and gallium (Ga)-ion batteries due to forming X2(GeC) (X = Li, B, Al, Ga) nanoclusters. A vast study on energy-saving by X2(GeC) complexes was probed using computational approaches due to density state analysis of charge density differences (CDD), total density of states (TDOS) and molecular electrostatic potential (ESP) for hybrid clusters of X2(GeC). A small portion of Li, B, Al or Ga entered the Ge–C layer could improve the structural stability of the electrode material at high multiplicity, thereby improving the capacity retention rate. Higher Ge/C content can increase battery capacity through X2(GeC) nanoclusters for energy storage process and improve the rate performances by enhancing electrical conductivity. Besides, GeC anode material may advance cycling consistency by excluding electrode decline and augments the capacity owing to higher surface capacitive impacts. In this research article, the recent progress of boron, aluminum or gallium -based anodes and their storage mechanism is presented.
The overuse of synthetic insecticides in agriculture and household pest control raises concerns regarding health risks, environmental toxicity, and insect resistance. In Indonesia, about 15% of agricultural and plantation land is affected by pest infestations, with Coptotermes curvignathus recognized as one of the most destructive species due to its wood-boring activity. This study aimed to develop an eco-friendly insecticide using Gliricidia sepium leaf extract, which contains bioactive compounds such as steroids, tannins, and saponins with insecticidal potential. Four formulations were prepared with extract concentrations of 0 g (F0), 0.15 g (F1), 0.3 g (F2), and 0.45 g (F3) in 100 mL solvent. Physicochemical evaluations included pH measurement, stability observation, and homogeneity testing, while safety was assessed through dermal irritation tests on rabbits using the Draize method. Efficacy against termites was evaluated using probit analysis (IBM SPSS v22). Results showed that all formulations were physically stable, homogenous, and exhibited suitable pH values. Irritation testing revealed no erythema or edema, with primary irritation indices below 0.5, classifying the formulations as non-irritating even at low pH values. Insecticidal testing demonstrated complete termite mortality, with the F3 formulation showing the most rapid and potent effect. These findings indicate that G. sepium extract-based formulations are safe, effective, and environmentally friendly, supporting their potential as botanical insecticides to replace synthetic alternatives in sustainable pest management systems.
Chromium(VI) metal ions have harmful effects on the environment and organisms. Chromium(VI) particles can cause chromosomal abnormalities, cross-linking, disruption of the cell cycle, and DNA damage within cells. Therefore, due to its high toxicity, it is crucial to monitor the concentration of chromium(VI) metal ions in the environment. This study aims to detect Cr(VI) metal ions in a simple, rapid, and effective manner. Electrochemical methods are employed to investigate the performance of PLE and Ag/PLE electrodes and to determine the optimal conditions for electrodeposition cycles and supporting electrolyte concentrations in detecting Cr(VI) metal ions. The electrochemical method is based on the specific reaction of the analyte, which generates an electrical signal. The PLE surface is modified with a silver thin layer through electrodeposition using cyclic voltammetry. The silver thin layer used for electrode modification offers several advantages, including improved electron transport and enhanced electrocatalytic response. The results indicate that the performance of Ag/PLE is superior to that of PLE in detecting Cr(VI) metal ions under optimal supporting electrolyte conditions, specifically 0.1 M HNO₃ with one electrodeposition cycle. Calibration curve analysis for Cr(VI) ions yielded the regression equation y = 0.6688x + 0.0085, with a correlation coefficient (R²) of 0.9958 and a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.18 mM.
The use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) has increased substantially in recent years as an alternative to conventional tobacco smoking. E-liquids, the core component of these devices, are formulated with various flavoring chemicals to enhance user experience. However, these flavoring agents may pose potential health risks when inhaled. This study aims to systematically review the chemical constituents of e-liquid flavorings identified using Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). A comprehensive literature search was conducted through PubMed, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect databases, focusing on articles published within the past ten years. The analysis concentrated on identifying chemical compounds present in a range of e-liquid flavors, including vanilla, bubble gum, coffee, tobacco, strawberry, lemon, and cannabis. The findings indicate that e-liquids commonly contain compounds such as vanillin, ethyl maltol, cinnamaldehyde, benzaldehyde, and limonene. While these substances are generally recognized for their aromatic and flavor-enhancing properties, several have been associated with adverse respiratory effects. Upon heating, these flavoring compounds undergo thermal degradation, producing harmful carbonyl derivatives such as formaldehyde and acetaldehyde. Both compounds are classified as human carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Nicotine, frequently present in e-liquids, contributes to addictive behavior and is associated with increased risks of psychological disorders. Additionally, certain studies have reported the presence of diethyl phthalate, likely introduced through contamination from packaging materials. This review highlights the critical need for stricter regulation of flavoring agents in e-liquids to mitigate their potential toxicological impact. Standardized testing and safety evaluations should be mandated prior to product approval. Furthermore, more rigorous scientific investigations are required to assess the long-term health effects of chronic exposure to inhaled flavoring chemicals. The study also underscores the importance of raising public awareness regarding the potential dangers of vaping and supports the development of comprehensive policies to control the chemical composition of e-cigarette products.
The local plant, Amomum dealbatum Roxb. (A. dealbatum), is native to Lombok Island. This plant is a member of the Zingiberaceae family, which is recognised to have antifungal and antibacterial properties due to the presence of secondary metabolites, particularly flavonoids. Nevertheless, there is still little information and few reports regarding the overall flavonoid content of A. dealbatum fruit. As a chemical marker to support an extract’s quality control and pharmacological effects, Total Flavonoid Content (TFC) determination is crucial. The purpose of this work was to use UV-Vis spectrophotometry to measure the TFC in the ethanol extract of A. dealbatum fruit. Using a 1:10 solvent: simplicia ratio and maceration with 96% ethanol, the extraction procedure was completed. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) and the Wilstatter test were then used to identify the extracted material qualitatively. Using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer and a colourimetric approach, TFC was measured. The ethanol extract of A. dealbatum fruit contained flavonoids, as indicated by the qualitative analysis. The TFC values were 3.0833 ± 0.1439 mg rutin equivalent (RE)/g extract and 0.4858 ± 0.0014 mg quercetin equivalent (QE)/g extract. These findings suggest that the ethanol extract of A. dealbatum contains more flavonoid glycosides than flavonoid aglycones. This finding shows potential for further development. As this study is still limited to TFC at the extract level, further research on TFC at the fraction, sub-fraction, and isolate levels is needed to obtain more specific information about the active compounds contributing to its biological activities. In addition, further pharmacological testing is required to confirm the therapeutic potential of A. dealbatum and support its development as a candidate raw material for traditional medicine industries.
Slow/controlled-release fertilizers (SCRF) are increasingly adopted to improve nutrient-use efficiency and reduce environmental losses amid fertilizer price volatility and sustainability demands. This systematic literature review synthesizes recent SCRF evidence by linking fabrication methods, material characteristics, nutrient release behavior, and agronomic outcomes. A structured search was conducted in ScienceDirect for open-access English research articles published between 2021–2025, focusing on urea-based SCRF that reported material composition/characterization, nutrient release profiles, soil indicators, and/or crop productivity. Thirty-eight studies met the inclusion criteria. The SCRFs were grouped into five material classes: synthetic polymers, natural/biobased polymers, biochar-based composites, inorganic minerals, and inhibitor/multifunctional systems. Fabrication was dominated by coating/encapsulation and blending to form core–shell granules (common in synthetic polymers), while polymerization, cross-linking, and casting frequently produced hydrogels or porous 3D networks (typical of biopolymers). Across studies, surface chemistry (hydrophobic versus hydrophilic functional groups) and coating integrity governed water ingress and release mechanisms (diffusion-barrier release versus swelling/degradation-assisted release), yet mechanical and swelling reporting remained inconsistent. Overall, SCRF improved crop yields relative to conventional fertilizers, with reported gains ranging from 1.47% to over 100% depending on material type, crop, and trial conditions. Key trade-offs persist between long-duration release precision, cost, and biodegradability, and cross-study comparison is limited by non-uniform biodegradation tests. Several papers assessed nitrogen-use efficiency and soil indicators (e.g., leaching or gaseous losses), but protocols and reporting units varied. Incorporating inhibitors or mineral fillers can further extend release, yet may increase persistence risks and complicate environmental fate assessment. Future work should standardize performance metrics and develop hybrid designs that balance release control, durability, and environmental fate.
Limonia acidissima L. (Rutaceae) is a plant rich in coumarin compounds and has been used in traditional medicine. One of the main coumarin compounds reported from the roots of this plant is auraptene (7-oxygeranylcoumarin), which has previously been reported to have antioxidant activity. With increasing cases of vector-borne diseases, especially dengue fever transmitted by Aedes aegypti, the development of effective and environmentally friendly natural larvicides is needed. This study aimed to evaluate the larvicide activity of auraptene, building on previous research. The larvicide test was carried out using the WHO larval bioassay method on third-instar A. aegypti larvae at concentrations of 25–500 ppm within an exposure time of 24 h. Mortality data were analyzed using probit analysis to determine the Lethal Concentration 50% (LC50) value. The results showed that auraptene increased larval mortality with an LC50 of 145.29 ± 0.02 ppm after 24 h of exposure. This value indicates that auraptene is classified as an active natural larvicide. In conclusion, auraptene has the potential to be developed as a natural larvicidal candidate against A. aegypti and may expand the spectrum of biological activity of coumarin compounds from L. acidissima L.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic gram-negative bacterium and is often the most common cause in people with immunocompromised problems. Infections by this bacterium, especially in patients with impaired immunity, are difficult to treat due to a number of antibiotic resistance mechanisms. The polyphenol compound Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG) contained in Camellia sinensis L. is known to have antibacterial activity against several bacteria so that it has the potential as an antibiotic to overcome the problem of antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. To obtain this compound, extraction with the right method is needed. In addition, the EGCG was dominant extracted at the ethyl acetate fraction. This study aims to analyze the effect of extraction methods on EGCG content and antibacterial activity (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) of ethyl acetate fractions of green tea leaves (EAFGL). The research design is an experimental laboratory using a true experimental posttest only control group design. Green tea leaf powder was extracted with 96% ethanol using the sonication and maceration methods, then fractionated evenly with n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl acetate solvents. The EGCG content of EAFGL was determined using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Antibacterial activity of EAFGL at the concentration 12.5; 50; 100; and 200 mg/mL were carried out using the disc diffusion method. Positive and negative control groups used Aztreonam and 10% DMSO, respectively. The antibacterial activity of EAFGL was analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney test. The results showed that EAFGL extracted using maceration revealed significantly higher EGCG content (170,97 ±17,51 µg EGCG/mg fraction). The EAFGL at a concentration of 200 mg/mL, obtained through maceration, exhibited the significantly (p<0.05) highest antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa with the inhibition zone of 16.7 mm. Therefore, maceration is an appropriate method for extracting green tea leaves, as it can produce optimal EGCG content and antibacterial activity.
Abstract: Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a major environmental hazard linked to erythema, photoaging, and skin cancers. While synthetic UV filters such as oxybenzone and octinoxate are widely used in commercial sunscreens, their potential for irritation, allergic reactions, and hormonal disruption raises safety concerns. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a sunscreen formulation using Syzygium aqueum (water apple) leaf extract, a plant rich in flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic compounds with antioxidant and UV-absorbing activity. The extract was obtained via maceration with 96% ethanol and incorporated into four cream formulations: a control without extract (F0) and three with 1%, 3%, and 5% concentrations (F1–F3). Physicochemical properties, pH, sun protection factor (SPF), and irritation potential were assessed. All formulations showed uniform consistency without phase separation, with pH values ranging from 6.3 to 6.6, which are suitable for topical application. SPF analysis revealed a concentration-dependent increase, from 7.0 in F0 to 18.0 ± 1.2 in F3, indicating enhanced photoprotective capacity. Irritation testing on rabbits showed no erythema or edema across all samples, confirming dermatological safety. Overall, the incorporation of S. aqueum extract significantly improved UV-protective activity while maintaining skin compatibility. These findings highlight the potential of S. aqueum as a safe and effective natural sunscreen ingredient and support its application in the development of botanical-based cosmetic products.
COVID-19 primarily affects the lungs, the impact of COVID-19 is not limited to the lungs only, but rather extends to affect other organs and body systems resulting in other complications that continue during the period of infection or beyond that. New onset diabetes and hyperglycemia is one of the complications of this virus. This study aims to investigate some biomarkers (HbA1c, triglycerides and cholesterol) in group of patients with post covid-19 syndrome and patient with post covid-19 hyperglycemia. Blood samples were withdrawn from 100 (50 controls including 25 males and 25 females and 50 patients including 25 males and 25 females) to investigate HbA1c, triglycerides and cholesterol levels. The result of the present study show that HbA1c significantly increased in PCS males (p.value=0.04) and in PCS females (p.value=0.05) in comparison with control males and control females respectively. The results also show that triglycerides have a significant elevation in PCS males (p.value=0.00) and PCS females(p.value=0.04) in comparison with control males and control females respectively. In the other hand cholesterol was non-significant in both groups. Correlation studies also included and show that there is no significant correlation between HbA1c and other measured parameters. Correlation studies also show that Triglycerides had a strong positive correlation with cholesterol in both PCS groups. Post COVID-19 hyperglycemia is a public health problem in concern and affect the body’s biochemical markers such as HbA1c and triglycerides reflecting their importance in monitoring the overall health in this group of patients.
Ficus heteropleura Blume, commonly known as mistletoe, is a semi-parasitic plant frequently found on oil palm plants. This study aimed to evaluate the secondary metabolite content, total phenolic concentration, and the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of the ethanol extract of Ficus heteropleura leaves. Extraction was conducted via grade maceration and total phenolic content was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu method with gallic acid as the standard. Antibacterial activity was tested using the disc diffusion method against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, while antioxidant potential was evaluated through the DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) method. Phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, and phenolics with a total phenolic content of 25.500 mg GAE/g. The extract exhibited moderate antibacterial activity with inhibition zones ranging from 7.5 to 10.3 mm. The antioxidant activity was classified as very strong with an IC₅₀ value of 0.67 µg/mL, compared to 0.45 µg/mL for ascorbic acid.
Benzophenone was synthesized through a condensation reaction of benzoic acid and phloroglucinol with an Eaton reagent as a catalyst. The percentage of the product was 60%, and it was characterized using FTIR and 1H-NMR. The sunscreen activity was carried out using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer to calculate the SPF value. The synthesis result was made in several concentration variations: 100, 150, 200, 250, and 300 ppm to measure the SPF values. The results showed that the SPF values were 9.89, 13.39, 17.83, 23.77, and 28.26, respectively. Based on this, it can be concluded that these compounds have biological activity as sunscreen and samples of 200-300 ppm are included in the ultra-category as sunscreen.
Aflatoxins, produced by fungi like Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, pose significant threats to food safety, impacting human and animal health while causing economic losses. Detoxifying aflatoxins is crucial to reducing contamination in food and feed. Enzymes and microorganisms present an eco-friendly and efficient solution for this purpose. This review highlights their roles in detoxification, focusing on bacteria, yeasts, and fungi that can degrade or bind aflatoxins, thereby lowering toxicity. Enzymes such as laccase, peroxidase, and reductase facilitate detoxification through oxidative and hydrolytic degradation. The efficiency of these methods depends on factors like pH, substrate availability, and temperature. Understanding the interactions between enzymes, microorganisms, and aflatoxins is essential for optimizing detoxification strategies. While promising, further research is needed to enhance their application in food safety.
The production of biomass-based briquettes from coconut shell charcoal and banana corm adhesive has been successfully carried out. This research aims to determine whether the banana corm may serve as an adhesive for briquette production from coconut shell charcoal. The concentration of banana corm utilized as adhesive is 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50%. For comparison analysis, this study also employed tapioca flour adhesive with the same concentration. The briquettes adhere to the SNI 01-6235-2000 standard for briquettes. The quality of briquettes is determined based on fixed carbon content and calorific value. The minimum standard calorific value and fixed carbon content are 5000 cal/g and 65%, respectively. Briquettes with a 90:10 ratio (coconut shell charcoal to banana corm adhesive ratio) had the highest calorific value of 7250 cal/g and fixed carbon content of 80.04%. In comparison, the tapioca flour adhesive provides a calorific value and fixed carbon content of 6995 cal/g and 81.09%, respectively. Furthermore, another indicator that determines briquette quality is the content of moisture, ash, and volatile matter. Briquettes with a 90:10 ratio possessed low moisture content (3.55%), ash content (6.45%), volatile matter content (9.96%), and burning rate (0.020 g/sec). This result indicates that the briquettes with a 90:10 ratio exhibit the greatest quality. Briquettes with banana corms adhesive have similar characteristics to tapioca flour, especially in terms of calorific value. As a result, the highlight of this research lies in offering banana corm, which has scientific contribution and future potential as an alternative adhesive in the briquetting process
Bioactive peptides in fermented foods are attracting scientific interest due to their prospective applications as nutraceutical and functional foods. Conventional fermented foods are naturally processed at home through the action of lactic acid bacteria (LAB). These bacteria break down food components and generate lactic acid, various organic acids, hydrogen peroxide, carbon dioxide, and short-chain peptides, which offer numerous health benefits. The bioactive peptides formed during fermentation exhibit diverse biological functions influenced by their structural compositions. Following enzymatic hydrolysis, peptides initially inactive within the native protein matrix are released and exhibit biological activity. This review aims to comprehensively examine the functional properties of bioactive peptides derived from the fermentation of traditional foods, with a particular emphasis on their therapeutic potential, including antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and anticarcinogenic activities. This review examines the health benefits of various bioactive peptides produced by lactic acid bacteria during the fermentation of traditional foods. Microbial bioactivity during the fermentation process can produce hydrolytic enzymes that break down macromolecules in food into smaller compounds, such as bioactive peptides. A wide range of peptides have been identified as improving insulin uptake, decreasing blood glucose concentrations, and inhibiting key enzymes involved in the pathogenesis of diabetes. Specific peptides exert antihypertensive effects by acting as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, thereby preventing the transformation of angiotensin I into angiotensin II. Moreover, some bioactive peptides demonstrate immunomodulatory properties by enhancing immune responses and inducing apoptosis in cancer cells. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the therapeutic and health-promoting potentials of bioactive peptides derived from fermented foods.
The notable fragile signal intensity close to the parallel edge of the nanocluster sample might be owing to silicon or germanium binding induced non-spherical distribution of AlGaSiN or AlGaGeN heteroclusters. However, a considerable deviation exists from doping atoms of palladium or platinum as electron acceptors on the surface of AlGaPdN or AlGaPtN heteroclusters. Then, magnetic parameters exhibited the same tendency of shielding for palladium or platinum; however, a considerable deviation exists from doping atoms of palladium or platinum as electron acceptors on the surface of Pd–AlGaN or Pt–AlGaN hetero-clusters. Therefore, it can be considered that palladium or platinum atoms in the functionalized AlGaPdN or AlGaPtN might have more impressive sensitivity for accepting the electrons in the process of hydrogen adsorption. The advantages of platinum or palladium over aluminum gallium nitride include its higher electron and hole mobility, allowing platinum or palladium doping devices to operate at higher frequencies than silicon or germanium doping devices. As a matter of fact, it can be observed that doped heteroclusters of AlGaPdN or AlGaPtN might ameliorate the capability of AlGaN for energy storage.
Kombucha tea is a traditional fermented beverage known for its probiotic benefits, produced from sweetened tea fermented with a Symbiotic Culture of Bacteria and Yeast (SCOBY). Recent innovations have focused on enhancing its functional properties using local fruit extracts. However, studies on the incorporation of Spondias dulcis (kedondong), a native fruit of Riau, remain limited. This study aims to formulate kombucha tea enriched with kedondong juice and evaluate its quality and antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Four formulations were prepared with kedondong juice concentrations of 0% (F1), 10% (F2), 20% (F3), and 30% (F4). Parameters observed included organoleptic properties, pH, alcohol content, microbial growth, and total acidity. Antibacterial activity was tested using the disc diffusion method, and results were statistically analyzed using One-Way ANOVA. F4 on day 7 showed the highest inhibition zones (13.30 mm for E. coli and 14.49 mm for S. aureus), with significant differences between formulations (p < 0.05). This study highlights the potential of kedondong-enriched kombucha tea as a functional probiotic beverage and a natural source of mild antibacterial agents, offering an innovative approach to utilizing local biodiversity in public health.
The conversion of agricultural residues into sustainable adsorbents provides an environmentally responsible pathway for advanced wastewater treatment. In this work, physically activated carbon was synthesized from corncob, an abundant and underutilized agricultural byproduct, through carbon dioxide activation at elevated temperatures. Comprehensive characterization using BET surface area analysis, SEM-EDX, and FTIR confirmed the formation of a highly porous structure with abundant surface functional groups, favourable for dye adsorption. The adsorbent exhibited excellent performance in removing Congo Red (CR) and Metanil Yellow (MY), achieving maximum adsorption capacities of 59.88 mg/g and 30.47 mg/g, respectively. The Langmuir isotherm provides a good description of the equilibrium data, while the kinetic results follow the pseudo-second-order model, indicating that monolayer chemisorption is the dominant mechanism. These findings underscore the potential of corncob-derived activated carbon as a cost-effective, renewable, and high-performance material for sustainable wastewater remediation
In the last few decades, many diseases have been caused by Radical Oxidative Stress (ROS) or free radicals. Compounds that act as natural antioxidants have been widely developed to counteract these free radicals. Rhizpora mucronata was a mangrove species reported to possess strong antioxidant activity. However, the research is limited to extracts; fractions with more specific compound components have not been explored. The n-hexane fraction of R. mucronata leaves was reported to have high total flavonoid content (TFC). The TFC has a positive correlation with antioxidant activity. Therefore, this study aimed to simplify the compound components in the n-hexane fraction of R. mucronata leaves using gravity column chromatography (GCG) and determine their antioxidant activity. The n-hexane fraction was fractionated using GCG with increasing solvent polarity (n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and methanol). The fractions were tested for antioxidant activity using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) methods. The fractionation using GCG resulted in 80 fractions. These fractions were grouped based on their thin-layer chromatography (TLC) profiles, resulting in 12 groups of fractions (A-L). Fractions D, F, G, H, J, K, and L, the fractions with enough yield, determined their antioxidant activity using the DPPH and ABTS methods. Fractions D and J tested by the DPPH method had IC50 values of 28.68 ± 1.58 ppm and 9.59 ± 0.39 ppm, respectively. Meanwhile, fractions D and J tested by the ABTS method had IC50 values of 15.10 ± 1.00 ppm and 3.16 ± 0.55 ppm, respectively. Meanwhile, fractions F, G, H, K, and L exhibit antioxidant activity with IC50 values greater than 100 ppm. Fractions D and J have potent antioxidant activity, and both were tested using DPPH and ABTS methods. Therefore, fractions D and J can be further developed as natural antioxidants.
