Background: Despite the growing emphasis on student-centered learning in modern medical education, teachers, serving as role models, mentors, guides, and effective communicators, remain essential. Objective: To evaluate undergraduate medical students' perceptions of the essential characteristics of an effective teacher in medical education. Methods: This study conducted a descriptive cross-sectional survey at Liaquat College of Medicine and Dentistry (LCMD) in Karachi, Pakistan, from October 2024 to March 2025. A total of 225 undergraduate medical students took part in the study. Data collection utilized a validated 35-item questionnaire designed to assess the qualities of excellent faculty. The survey used a five-point Likert scale, and the results were grouped into three areas: human qualities, teacher qualities, and physician qualities. Results: First-year students rated all three areas at a moderate level, with scores of 50.2% for physician qualities, 50.8% for teacher qualities, and 56.0% for humanistic qualities. Second-year students gave lower ratings. From third year onward, however, ratings improved significantly. Fourth-year students gave the highest overall ratings, showing a strong preference for human, teacher, and physician qualities, with scores of 71.4%, 69.2%, and 60.8%, respectively. Fifth-year students also gave these areas higher ratings, but slightly lower than fourth-year students. Across all years, human qualities had the highest overall rating at 59.8%, followed by teacher qualities (57.8%) and physician qualities (54.5%). Conclusion: These findings suggest that students' expectations of excellent teachers are evolving throughout medical training, with an increasing emphasis on humanistic and teacher qualities in addition to clinical competence.
Trigeminal neuralgia (TN) is often described as one of the most common and excruciating types of pain, typically characterized by sudden, severe, and sharp pain on one side of the face. It usually occurs due to compression of the trigeminal nerve, often by a blood vessel. This compression can lead to improper nerve signaling, causing intense pain. While neurovascular compression is the most common cause, other conditions, such as tumors, multiple sclerosis (MS), or aneurysms, can also lead to compression of this nerve and contribute to the development of TN. The mechanisms underlying these conditions can vary, but they can all interfere with the nerve's normal functioning. In this case report, the authors present a case of trigeminal neuralgia caused by compression from an arachnoid cyst in Meckel’s cave. The significance of this pathological condition in patients with cranial nerve dysfunction syndrome is highlighted by our findings, which serve as the basis for this review of the current literature. This case describes a common case of trigeminal neuralgia caused by a Meckel's cave arachnoid cyst, which resembles a neurovascular compression syndrome. The significance of this pathological condition in patients with cranial nerve dysfunction syndrome is highlighted by our findings, which serve as the basis for this review of the current literature.
Intracranial fungal granulomas may be misdiagnosed as malignant tumors by radiologists and clinicians. They also rarely occur in the absence of a history of immunodeficiency or diabetes. Intracranial fungal mass (IFM) is a rare clinical disease in immunocompetent individuals. We reported a case of a 50-year-old male who presented with a one-day history of aphasia and decreased responsiveness. The MR spectroscopy was consistent with glioma; however, histopathology showed it to be fungal. Rarely and without a known focal focus, brain fungal mass lesions can arise in immunocompetent patients. On radiography, they may look like CNS tumors. Intraoperative SC will therefore serve as a checkpoint in these situations to reroute the management
Background: Obesity is a growing global concern, and the impact of obesity on surgical outcomes often remains under-recognized. Objectives: The primary objective of the study is to evaluate the burden of obesity in patients attending a general surgery clinic at a tertiary hospital. The secondary objective is to compare post-operative morbidity among a subset of obese and non-obese patients undergoing surgery. Methods: This cohort study was conducted at Patel Hospital from January 2022 to October 2022. Surgical residents recorded demographic data, BMI, comorbidities, diagnosis, and post-operative complications. Obesity was classified according to the WHO and Asia-Pacific BMI criteria. Comparisons between BMI categories and clinical variables, including post-operative complications, were performed. Results: A total of 452 patients were included, with median (IQR) ages and BMIs of 45 (32.5-57) and 25.5 (22.9-29.4), respectively. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was 11.5% and 72.6%, respectively. Combined prevalence of overweight/obesity was found to be 84.1%, with more than half of the patients classified as obese II (53.8%) as per the Asia-Pacific classification. A subset of 210 patients underwent surgery, and in that subset, overweight/obese patients [197/210 (93.1%)] were more than normal/underweight [13/210 (6.9%)]. The frequency of complications was higher in Overweight/Obese patients than in normal/underweight patients, without statistical significance [11/197 (5.6%) vs. 0/13, p=0.381]. Conclusion: Obesity is highly prevalent among patients presenting to the general surgery clinic, and it increases the likelihood of comorbidities, specific surgical pathology (hepatobiliary, hernias), surgical interventions, and post-operative morbidity. These findings highlight the need for structured perioperative risk assessment and tailored management strategies for obese patients.
Background: Around the world, refractive defects are the most common cause of impaired vision. There is contradictory and insufficient data to support a potential link between blood types (ABO) and refractive disorders. Objective: This study was carried out to assess the association between refractive defects and ABO blood group in participants (aged 10-35 years) who visit Al-Kubra Health and Eye Clinic in Islamabad, Pakistan. Methods: The cross-sectional study was conducted from September 2023 to December 2023. Three hundred patients were selected using purposive sampling (100 per refractive error category). Participants with other ocular diseases or who were unwilling to provide informed consent were excluded from the study. A slandered eye examination was followed to evaluate refractive errors, and cycloplegic refraction is used where needed. SPSS 2021 was used to analyze the data. Frequencies and percentages are presented as descriptive data, and correlations are assessed using Fisher’s Exact test at p < 0.05. Results: A distinctive pattern of the ABO blood group was shown by all three refractive error categories of the sampled data. B positive showed a significant number of refractive errors (43.7%). The refractive error form was significantly associated with ABO blood group (p < 0.05). Conclusion: In this clinic-based sample, a significant association was found between ABO blood group and refractive disorders, with B+ being the most frequent blood type across all refractive types. However, due to limitations in study design and sampling, the results should be interpreted with caution. It is advised to do larger multicenter studies with population-based sampling and adjusted analysis.
Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder identified by raised blood glucose levels due to suppressed insulin production. Heparin, a familiar anticoagulant, has been shown to hinder the insulin channeling and increase blood glucose levels. Carica papaya Leaf Extract (CPLE) is attracting attention as a potential natural therapeutic agent for managing high blood glucose levels in patients with diabetes. This study investigates the effects of CPLE and Heparin on body weight, diet consumption, and blood glucose levels in experimental Wistar rats. This preliminary pilot study was conducted for 1 month, from November 2023 to December 2023, at the Animal House Facility of the Department of Physiology at the University of Karachi. A total of 20 male Wistar rats were taken and randomly divided into four groups (n=5). Control, Heparin-induced, CPLE-induced, and a combination Heparin and CPLE-induced group. Heparin was administered intravenously at 0.1 ml/100 g body weight, whereas CPLE was administered orally at 2000 mg/kg body weight. Diet intake and body weight were observed during the trial. Blood glucose levels were estimated at the end of the study. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare the medians across groups. P-value <0.05 was considered significant. The study found a notable decline in dietary intake (p<0.001) and body weight (p<0.001) in all treatment groups. Blood glucose levels were elevated in all treatment groups except the CPLE-treated group, where they decreased from baseline (p<0.001). In conclusion, CPLE and Heparin may affect blood glucose levels in Wistar rats. CPLE may lower blood glucose levels, while Heparin raises them.
Background: Cognitive impairment and restless sleep are frequent health complaints among older population, whereas information is not readily available about their co-relation in developing nations like Pakistan. Objectives: To determine the frequency of poor sleep quality and cognitive impairment and their association in older adults in Pakistan. Methods: This cross-sectional study was carried out from December, 2024 to March 2025 at Liaquat National Hospital, Karachi. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index >5 was used to measure sleep quality, while the Mini Mental State Examination <23 was used to determine cognitive impairment. Binary logistic regression and Chi-square testing were used to investigate the association. Results: A total of 334 adults were studied, 58.1% of whom were male had a mean age of 66.67 ± 5.84 years. Poor sleep quality was found in 44.3% elderly, while 19.8% had cognitive impairment, which was substantially more common in those with poor sleep than in those slept well (29.7% vs. 11.8%; p<0.001). PSQI and MMSE scores showed an extremely weak negative correlation (r=−0.231; p<0.001), and multivariable analysis revealed cognitive impairment (aOR=3.15, 95% CI: 1.80–5.49; p<0.001), in female (aOR=.73, 95% CI: 1.11–2.69, p=0.015). Poor sleep was independently correlate with co-morbid disorders and the usage of cardiac medicines. Conclusion: The study findings revealed a substantial burden of poor sleep quality in elderly Pakistanis, with significant associations observed between cognitive impairment and comorbid chronic medical conditions
The etiology and pathophysiological pathway of Acquired facial lipoatrophy remain unclear. It is a rare disease that is perhaps linked with immune system-related ailments, especially AIDS; the causative reasons are not well established. Since the disease manifestation is unknown, appropriate management guidelines have not yet been developed, though its management is crucial for patients' psycho-social activities. Here, a case of a 26-year-old female is presented who had a slow, progressive subcutaneous fat loss on the face, having acquired facial lipoatrophy. Acquired facial lipoatrophy can impact the psycho-social life of the patient significantly. In dermatology, the cosmetic procedure of choice is the administration of hyaluronic acid (HA) dermal fillers for skin rejuvenation and facial contouring. Dermal fillers containing HA are soft tissue fillers that are biocompatible, biodegradable, and easy to administer, with acceptable efficacy and safety. After the initial administration of the filler, this patient was followed for 24 months at regular intervals, and improvement was satisfactorily evident. This case report presents the successful outcome of HA facial filler application for the treatment of facial lipoatrophy following previously failed fat grafting, performed twice. The facial characteristics of our patient were further changed due to fat grafting failure, which was successfully restored by HA filler.
Digital pathology (DP) is poised to drive a major shift from analog to digital histopathology in Pakistan. It enhances workflow efficiency, enables remote case sharing and collaboration without logistical barriers, supports education and training, and is expected to further advance through increasing integration of AIdriven tools [1, 2]. As with radiology, DP implementation can benefit from Teleradiology.pk’s experience in teleradiology services, which enable remote reporting and rapid turnaround times [2-4]. As Pakistan comprises a predominantly rural population (approximately 63% to total population resides in rural areas), and the facilities of specialist services in histopathology, including expensive testing with immunostains and molecular studies, are by and large confined to a few large city centers, DP, when used with its full potential, can be the realistic answer and objective remedy for capacity building and expedited diagnosis. Digital triaging and prioritization can inform the selective use of immunostains and cases requiring further IHC or molecular testing. By identifying cases with high diagnostic certainty on H&E alone, laboratories can reduce unnecessary use of expensive stains. AI models trained on digitized H&E slides can predict certain biomarker statuses (e.g., Ki-67, HER2, PD-L1) with high accuracy, thereby complementing conventional IHC and guiding selective testing as demonstrated by recent studies [1, 2, 5]. It can help not only Pakistan but also the world if the nations’ workforce capacity and expertise are shared with other countries through skill exchanges. There is a substantial shortage of histopathologists in Pakistan, with some estimates suggesting that the country has approximately 1 pathologist / 100,000-150,000 population, which is considerably lower than highincome countries such as the USA and the UK, with approximate ratios of 1/15,000-20,000 population. This disparity highlights the urgent need for greater access to specialist expertise. Owing to the rapid, expedited quality diagnoses seen in other specialties, there is a need to invest in training and technological advancements [1, 3, 6].
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that typically emerges in childhood, often persisting into adulthood, and is marked by patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. These symptoms may disrupt individuals' functioning across environments such as school, home, and community, and may increase the risk of negative health and social outcomes as people age. The perception and diagnosis of ADHD vary significantly across societies, influenced by cultural norms regarding acceptable behavior in children. ADHD is known as a prevalent condition globally, but the approaches to its definition, diagnosis, and treatment vary. As a result, diagnosing and treating ADHD remains difficult, requiring a greater dependence on knowledge and experience. This article provides an overview of ADHD with a focus on its Prevalence and social perceptions. Moreover, the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD have also been discussed. This review article highlights the critical need for strategic planning to manage ADHD in children and youth while confirming the disorder's high incidence. The incidence of ADHD and its broader impacts on people's social functioning and personal well-being need to be further assessed. As per treatment recommendations, behavioral and/or stimulant therapies are considered the first-line.
The primary care physicians are being involved increasingly to manage common mental concerns like anxiety and depression due to high mental health diagnosis, lack of mental health experts and growth of the patient-centered medical home care. The evidence from primary care to benefit anxiety and depression screening is scarce to achieve successful mental health outcomes. The access to primary care for anxiety and depression cases places the primary care physicians in a precarious role to address these problems. In primary care settings, a simple communication on a continuum is done for the mental health integrated care models amid providers, to the comprehensive integration of inter-professional teams. Despite of availability of integration models to the primary care physicians, anxiety and depression should be properly diagnosed and managed. This review discusses integrated models of primary care and mental health, providing a concise overview of recommended approaches to screening and intervention.
Background: Perceptions and practices of hemodialysis patients regarding Ramadan fasting remain a matter of debate in the Muslim world due to differing opinions and outcomes. Objective: To evaluate the perceptions and practices about Ramadan fasting in hemodialysis patients. Methods: A cross-sectional study conducted among patients undergoing hemodialysis at a dialysis unit of Memon Medical Institute Hospital, Karachi, during Ramadan (March 2024 to April 2024). Patients undergoing regular hemodialysis sessions were selected and grouped based on their fasting status: complete fasting, partial fasting, and non-fasting. Demographic data, biochemical parameters, and 11 question themes (5 on perceptions and 6 on practices) were collected. Data were analyzed in SPSS version 25 using descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, and the chi-square test; p-values < 0.05 were considered significant. Results: A total of 179 patients were included (mean age of 51.39±16.23 years), among whom 3.93% were in the fasting group, 26.40% in the partial group, and 69.66% in the non-fasting group. Significant differences were observed in both perceptions and biochemical outcomes. 100% of fasting participants and 72.3% of partial fasting participants showed positive effects of fasting compared with only 29% of the non-fasting group (p=0.001). Adverse effects such as weakness and fatigue were reported by the majority in the non-fasting group (69.4%) compared with the partial fasting (21.3%) and fasting (42.9%) groups (p=0.001). Among biochemical parameters, only serum potassium levels differed significantly (p = 0.024), with higher levels in the fasting group. Conclusion: Fasting and partial fasting individuals were more likely to perceive beneficial effects, whereas non-fasting individuals were more likely to report adverse effects. These findings highlight the importance of individualized education and guidance regarding fasting practices.
Background: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is the principal pathogen isolated from skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), with clinical manifestations and risk factors varying by SSTI subtype. Understanding this variation in clinical presentation and associated risk factors within local populations is essential for effective diagnosis and management. Objective: This study compares the diverse clinical characteristics of MRSA-associated subtypes of SSTIs in the local population. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted at the Department of Pathology, Jinnah Sindh Medical University, Karachi, Pakistan, between May 2024 and April 2025. The study included 268 pus specimens collected from patients with clinically diagnosed SSTIs. The samples were cultured, and antibiotic susceptibility was performed to identify MRSA, which was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction using standard protocols. The relevant clinical data were gathered in pre-designed proformas, which were later entered into Microsoft Excel and analysed in SPSS using descriptive statistics, cross-tabulations, and the Chi-square test. Results: Mean age of patients was 41.25±16.441. Of the total 268, 115 were primary bacterial infections and surgical site infections, and 38 were secondary bacterial infections. The most common SSTI type was surgical site infections (42.9%), followed by abscesses in the non-surgical infections category (24.3%). The study highlighted that MRSA-positive cases were highly prevalent in females (53.7%) among the age group 40-60 years (55.2%). Active smokers showed a preponderance for MRSA-positive primary bacterial infections (13.9%). A history of hospitalization was more common among the MRSA-positive surgical site infection cohort than in the other two groups (90.4%). The majority of subjects had moderate-severity wounds (51.9%), and the Torso was the most affected site (54.1%). Conclusion: MRSA can be linked with varying degrees of clinical features and risk factors in SSTIs subtypes. These findings may provide evidence-based insights for improved patient care and treatment strategies.
Isoniazid (INH) is a cornerstone first-line antitubercular drug widely used in the treatment of tuberculosis. Although generally well tolerated, INH can rarely cause neuropsychiatric adverse effects, including acute psychosis, which may pose diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. We report four cases of pulmonary tuberculosis in which patients developed acute-onset psychotic symptoms following the initiation of therapeutic doses of INH. The onset of symptoms occurred without prior psychiatric history and was temporally related to INH administration. The proposed mechanisms include INH-induced inhibition of monoamine oxidase and pyridoxine (vitamin B6) deficiency, both of which can alter neurotransmitter metabolism. All patients showed clinical improvement following withdrawal or dose modification of INH, administration of low-dose atypical antipsychotics, and pyridoxine supplementation. Causality and severity of adverse drug reactions were assessed using the World Health Organization–Uppsala Monitoring Centre (WHO-UMC) scale, the Karch-Lasagna algorithm, and the Modified HartwigSiegel severity scale. All cases were reported to the Adverse Drug Reaction Monitoring Centre under the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI). INH-induced psychosis, though rare, is a clinically significant adverse drug reaction that requires early recognition and prompt management. Awareness of this potential complication, routine patient counselling, and vigilant pharmacovigilance are essential to ensure patient safety and optimize tuberculosis treatment outcomes.
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection during pregnancy can lead to severe complications, including maternal liver failure, preterm labour, vertical transmission, and increased maternal and neonatal mortality—primarily in endemic regions. This report describes a 26-year-old gravida 5, para 1+3 woman who presented at 36 weeks of gestation with jaundice, labour pains, and markedly elevated liver enzymes (ALT 950 IU/L; AST 870 IU/L). She tested positive for anti-HEV IgM. Multidisciplinary care included maternal stabilisation and continuous fetal monitoring. A successful vaginal delivery of a healthy neonate weighing 2.5 kg was achieved. Early diagnosis, conservative management, and vigilant monitoring were key to the favourable outcome. However, the case highlights the urgent need for public health measures to enhance sanitation, increase community awareness, and explore vaccination strategies in high-risk areas. Epidemiological data suggest that in HEV-endemic regions, maternal mortality from HEV infection during pregnancy can reach 15-25% (95% CI: 12-28%). Further research on the safety and efficacy of HEV vaccines in pregnancy is essential to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality.
A significant worldwide health burden, millions of new cases of tuberculosis (TB) are recorded each year. Ensuring patient adherence to therapy, which is essential for positive results and limiting the emergence of drug resistance, is one of the main problems in the management of tuberculosis. Electronic pillboxes, video directly observed therapy (VDOT), and mobile health (mHealth) applications are a few examples of digital health adherence technologies that show promise in improving TB treatment adherence. Utilising digital health adherence technology to manage tuberculosis is also a promising approach. Due to its high rates of morbidity and mortality, tuberculosis (TB) continues to be a serious public health concern in Pakistan. Digital health interventions provide innovative approaches to enhance tuberculosis management and control. This study examines the state of digital health initiatives for managing tuberculosis in Pakistan, evaluates their effectiveness, and identifies potential obstacles to their implementation.
Background: Febrile neutropenia (FN) to date remains a significant cause of morbidity, mortality, and increased healthcare costs among oncology patients. Existing data on its economic implications in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) is limited. Objective: To assess the trends of FN admissions in the inpatient setting and their resultant economic burden in patients with solid organ malignancies within an LMIC setting. Methods: We conducted a retrospective study at the Aga Khan University Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan, from June 2023 to September 2024. One hundred adult patients with solid malignancies who were admitted with FN were included. Demographic, clinical, and economic data were collected and analyzed. Patients were stratified by risk using the Multinational Association for Supportive Care in Cancer (MASCC) score. The primary outcomes of our study included the length of stay (LOS), antibiotic duration, and cumulative hospitalization cost. Results: Of the 100 patients, 49% were considered low risk (MASCC ≥21). The mean patient age was 54 years. High-risk patients had a longer LOS (6.3 vs. 3.2 days) and a longer antibiotic therapy duration (8 vs. 5 days). Grade 4 neutropenia was found in 60%. The mean hospitalization cost was approximated at $1,200-$1,800 USD per admission (average $350/day), with intravenous antibiotics accounting for 20% and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor 3% of the total costs. Conclusion: Implementing FN risk-based protocols in LMICs can enable safe outpatient management of low-risk patients, reduce healthcare costs by lowering admissions, and lessen the financial burden on patients in out-of-pocket payment healthcare settings.
Background: Worldwide, colorectal carcinoma is the third most common malignancy affecting both males and females. Although being considered an old-age disease, a higher incidence of colorectal carcinoma (CRC) has been reported in younger individuals in developing countries. Objectives: The study aimed to determine the clinicopathological characteristics of previously diagnosed colorectal cancer cases, including demographic factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, as well as tumour location, grading, staging, and mode of treatment, in diagnosed cases of colorectal cancer at a tertiary care hospital in Karachi, Pakistan. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted over three years, from September 2020 to August 2023, following IRB approval. All cases of colorectal carcinoma presenting at the Department of Oncology, Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Centre, Karachi, were included in the study. The data were analysed using SPSS version 22.0. Results: Of 193 patients, 116(60.1%) were males and 77(39.8%) were females. The overall mean age was 40 ±15.023 years. Per rectal bleeding was the most common (49.03 %) presenting symptom, and the predominant tumour site was the rectum, 88(45.6%). Most of the tumours were at TNM stage III, followed by stage IV. The most common site for distant metastasis was the liver, 46 (23.8%). Conclusion: The Majority of cases were males aged under 50 years. The majority of the patients had no family history of any cancer. Adenocarcinoma was the most common type. The majority of the patients had advanced disease at the time of diagnosis.
Background: Cataract formation is one of the most common complications of anterior uveitis. Cataract extraction in these patients poses a heightened risk of intraoperative and postoperative complications. Despite the advances in surgical methods and perioperative management strategies, recurrence of inflammation and poor clinical outcomes persist. Objective: To evaluate preoperative conditions, postoperative visual and clinical results, and complications of cataract surgery in patients with anterior uveitis in Pakistan. Methods: A prospective observational cohort study was conducted at LRBT Tertiary Teaching Eye Hospital from June 2023 to May 2024, including 65 patients with cataracts secondary to anterior uveitis. Patients were classified into four groups: (i) Idiopathic, (ii) Fuchs’ heterochromic iridocyclitis, (iii) Infective anterior uveitis and (iv) non-infectious anterior uveitis. Preoperative evaluation included visual acuity assessment, slit-lamp examination, intraocular pressure measurement, and OCT when indicated. All patients underwent phacoemulsification with intraocular lens implantation. Postoperative outcomes, including best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA). Anterior chamber cells, flare and other complications were assessed at 1 week, 1 month, and 6 months. Data were analysed using SPSS version 25. Results: Fuchs uveitis showed the most favourable and most sustained BCVA improvement. Non-infectious and idiopathic cases showed moderate gains, while infective anterior uveitis had the poorest outcomes. Complications included posterior capsular opacification (40%), cystoid macular edema (27.7%), and recurrent uveitis (12.3%). Intraocular pressure fluctuated but significantly decreased at six months (p<0.001). Conclusion: Perioperative inflammation control is critical for favourable visual outcomes in uveitic cataract surgery. Optimised surgical strategies and meticulous postoperative care are crucial for improving outcomes and reducing complications in patients with anterior uveitis.
Biosafety is a critical aspect of laboratory medicine, defined as the application of principles and practices to prevent infections, as well as chemical and physical hazards, in the laboratory. To achieve optimal biosafety in clinical and research laboratories, it is essential to implement rules, regulations, and procedures for preventing hazards associated with laboratory work. This not only impacts the health of laboratory personnel but also significantly affects environmental health outside the laboratory. Hence, a structured biosafety program built on the principles of established evidence and guidelines functions to implement all the requisite protocols. The primary controls of biosafety and good laboratory practices and procedures (GLPPs) are two of the cardinal pillars of such a biosafety program, each providing its own courses of action for implementing biosafety in a stepwise methodology. The four primary controls of biosafety comprise engineering controls, standard operating procedures, personal protective equipment and leadership. Each of these controls play a pivotal role in ensuring biosafety and augmenting the effect of other controls. On the other hand, GLPPs comprise a set of procedures designed to enforce safety during laboratory tasks and are to be adopted by all laboratory personnel. GLPP aims to adopt a methodical and rigorous approach to laboratory work, thereby reducing errors and ensuring the accuracy of results. The authors provide an overview of the primary controls of biosafety and GLPPs in this article, emphasizing their importance in a laboratory biosafety program.
