پژوهش‌های علوم شناختی و رفتاری

The present study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a unified transdiagnostic treatment program on emotion regulation strategies in anxious adolescent girls. A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design with experimental and control groups was employed. The study population consisted of female middle school students in Tehran, from whom 24 participants were selected through convenience sampling following screening with the Achenbach Youth Self-Report and a semi-structured clinical interview. Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 12) and a control group (n = 12). The experimental group received a 12-session unified transdiagnostic intervention based on Barlow’s protocol, while the control group was placed on a waitlist. Emotion regulation strategies were assessed using the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross & John) and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (Gratz & Roemer). Data were analyzed using non-parametric tests, including the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Mann–Whitney U test, and analysis of covariance. Results indicated a significant increase in cognitive reappraisal and a significant decrease in emotional suppression in the experimental group compared to the control group (p < .01). Moreover, all subscales of difficulties in emotion regulation, as well as the total score, showed a significant reduction in the experimental group, whereas no significant changes were observed in the control group. These findings suggest that the unified transdiagnostic treatment is effective in enhancing adaptive emotion regulation strategies and reducing emotion regulation difficulties in anxious adolescent girls. Given its flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and focus on shared emotional mechanisms, this approach appears to be a promising intervention for adolescents with emotional disorders and may be particularly suitable for school-based mental health programs.IntroductionAnxiety disorders during adolescence are among the most common mental health problems and are associated with wide-ranging consequences in emotional, academic, social, and familial domains. This developmental period, due to the simultaneous occurrence of biological, cognitive, and social changes, is characterized by increased emotional sensitivity and affective fluctuations, making adolescents more vulnerable to experiencing anxiety and emotional inefficiencies. Research evidence indicates that adolescent girls, compared to boys, report higher levels of anxiety and difficulties in emotion regulation, highlighting the necessity of designing and implementing targeted interventions for this group. From a theoretical perspective, emotion regulation, as one of the key transdiagnostic constructs, plays a central role in explaining the development, maintenance, and comorbidity of emotional disorders. Deficits in emotion regulation can lead to repeated use of maladaptive strategies such as emotional avoidance, suppression, and impulsive reactions; strategies that may reduce distress in the short term but reinforce the cycle of anxiety in the long term. Accordingly, focusing on improving emotion regulation processes, particularly within transdiagnostic approaches, has recently become a research and clinical priority. Unified transdiagnostic treatment, by targeting shared emotional mechanisms, provides a coherent framework for intervention across a broad spectrum of anxiety disorders. The present study aimed to examine the effectiveness of this treatment on emotion regulation strategies among anxious adolescent girls. MethodThe current study employed a quasi-experimental design with a pretest, a posttest and a control group. After initial screening and diagnostic interviews, 24 first-year high school girls, were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The experimental group participated in twelve sessions of unified transdiagnostic treatment based on Barlow’s protocol, while the control group was placed on a waitlist. Research instruments included the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Data were analyzed using non-parametric tests and analysis of covariance. Findings indicated that the unified transdiagnostic intervention had significant, broad, and multidimensional effects on emotion regulation in anxious students. At the level of emotion regulation strategies, results showed a significant increase in the use of cognitive reappraisal in the experimental group compared to the control group (p < 0.01). This increase reflects an improvement in adolescents’ ability to reinterpret emotionally challenging situations and reduce the perceived threat of events. Simultaneously, scores for emotional suppression in the experimental group significantly decreased, indicating a reduced tendency to suppress emotions and an increased willingness to experience and process feelings.At the level of emotion regulation difficulties, there was a significant decrease in the total score of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale in the experimental group. Component analysis revealed that non-acceptance of negative emotions was one of the most prominent components reduced following the intervention. This finding suggests that participants were able to accept unpleasant emotions as a natural part of human experience without exhibiting judgmental or avoidant responses. Such a change plays a crucial role in reducing the intensity of anxiety experiences. Additionally, difficulties in controlling emotional impulses significantly decreased. This finding indicates an improvement in adolescents’ ability to inhibit immediate, impulsive, and emotion-driven reactions in stressful situations. Given that impulse control deficits are associated with risky behaviors, academic underperformance, and interpersonal problems in anxious adolescents, this result carries substantial clinical significance. Furthermore, the component of lack of emotional awareness also showed a significant reduction, reflecting an increased ability to identify, label, and differentiate experienced emotions. Another notable finding of the study was a significant reduction in limitations in accessing effective emotion regulation strategies. This result suggests that the unified transdiagnostic intervention was able to expand participants’ coping strategy repertoire and enhance their sense of efficacy in managing intense emotions. In contrast, the control group showed no significant changes in emotion regulation strategies or related difficulties, emphasizing the decisive role of the intervention. ResultsIn the discussion and interpretation of findings, it can be stated that the observed pattern of changes aligns closely with the theoretical framework of unified transdiagnostic treatment. The increase in cognitive reappraisal indicates enhanced cognitive flexibility, a capacity that allows adolescents to move away from absolutist, catastrophic, and threat-focused interpretations. This cognitive change likely results from training in identifying maladaptive thoughts and practicing cognitive restructuring within an emotional experience context. The decrease in emotional suppression and avoidance can be considered one of the most important outcomes of the intervention. Unified transdiagnostic treatment, with an emphasis on emotion-focused exposure and tolerance, teaches adolescents that experiencing negative emotions is not inherently dangerous and can be managed without avoidance or suppression. This attitudinal shift toward emotions plays a key role in breaking the anxiety–avoidance cycle. The reduction in difficulties in controlling emotional impulses also reflects improved behavioral emotion regulation. This outcome indicates that the intervention not only led to cognitive and emotional changes but also moderated maladaptive behavioral responses. From a clinical perspective, this change may contribute to decreased family conflicts, improved peer relationships, and enhanced academic adjustment.Overall, the findings of the present study suggest that unified transdiagnostic treatment, by simultaneously targeting cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components of emotion regulation, can produce profound and significant changes in the emotional patterns of anxious adolescents. By focusing on shared underlying processes, this approach becomes an efficient option for preventive and therapeutic interventions in educational and clinical settings. The results support the application of this treatment in school-based mental health programs, and its use may play a critical role in preventing the chronicity of emotional disorders during adolescence.

This study aimed to examine the effect of help-seeking strategies training on social isolation and academic boredom among withdrawn students. The research employed a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population consisted of female junior high school students in Nourabad County during the 2023-2024 academic year, from which 40 withdrawn students were selected through purposive sampling and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups (20 students each). Measurement tools included the Social Isolation Questionnaire, Academic Boredom Scale, and Help-Seeking Strategies Training Protocol. The experimental group received 13 sessions of help-seeking strategies training, followed by a posttest. Results from multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) revealed a statistically significant difference (p<0.01) between the experimental and control groups in mean scores of social isolation and academic boredom, indicating that the training effectively reduced both social isolation and academic boredom. Findings demonstrate that help-seeking strategies training serves as an effective intervention for simultaneously mitigating social isolation and academic boredom in withdrawn students. These results underscore the importance of developing educational intervention programs focused on enhancing communication skills in school settings.IntroductionStudents, as valuable assets of society, play a vital role in improving its health and success (Farnia et al., 2020). Behavioral issues such as social withdrawal, anxiety, and depression negatively impact their academic and social functioning (Rezaei Sharif & Khademi Astane, 2022). Social withdrawal is characterized by traits like social isolation, shyness, and avoidance of group interactions, affecting 1–3% of students (Bruinsma et al., 2006; Habibi et al., 2015). This condition leads to social isolation and academic boredom (Keykha & Shahbazi, 2018; Ahmadi et al., 2020). Social isolation refers to a lack of objective or subjective interactions with others (Hughes et al., 2004), while academic boredom is a negative emotional state marked by disinterest in learning, which diminishes academic performance (Wu & Kang, 2023).Although conventional interventions such as cognitive therapy and play therapy are effective (Ghyasizadeh, 2013), they are time-consuming. In contrast, help-seeking strategies training, as a school-based intervention, can mitigate these issues by enhancing social interactions and academic self-efficacy (Kabini Moghaddam et al., 2020). This study examines the effect of these strategies on reducing social isolation and academic boredom in withdrawn students.MethodThe present study employed a quasi-experimental design with a pretest–posttest and a control group. The study population included all female students in the first cycle of secondary school (lower secondary) in Nurabad County during the 2023–2024 academic year. Accordingly, five schools were selected based on criteria of geographic diversity, socioeconomic status, and the cooperation of school principals. Then, among the students in these schools, those who were suspected of social withdrawal and isolation based on the school counselor’s judgment through observation of overt behaviors were introduced to the researcher. After screening, 40 students who obtained at least the required cutoff score (50) on Social Isolation Questionnaire (Modaresi Yazdi, 2014) were included in the study. Their inclusion was confirmed by school counselors. Participants were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The experimental group received 13 sessions (60 minutes each) of help-seeking strategies training (Habibi Kliber, 2012) protocol. Data were collected using the Social Isolation Questionnaire (Modaresi Yazdi, 2014) and the Academic Boredom Scale (Pekrun et al., 2005) during pretest and posttest phases and analyzed using SPSS-26.ResultsThe mean age of participants was 13.47 (SD = 1.11). Descriptive (mean, SD) and inferential statistics (multivariate analysis of covariance, MANCOVA) were used for analysis. Results showed a significant reduction in social isolation, class-related boredom, and learning-related boredom (components of academic boredom) in the experimental group, while changes in the control group were negligible.Assumptions for MANCOVA were verified: normality (Shapiro-Wilk, p > 0.05), homogeneity of variances (Levene’s test, p > 0.05), homogeneity of covariance matrices (Box’s M, p > 0.05), and nonsignificant pretest-group interaction (p > 0.05). MANCOVA indicated significant differences between groups in at least one dependent variable (p < 0.05).Analysis revealed that help-seeking training significantly reduced social isolation (p < 0.001, F = 468.71, η² = 0.931), class-related boredom (p < 0.001, F = 265.92, η² = 0.884), and learning-related boredom (p < 0.001, F = 233.67, η² = 0.870). High eta-squared values indicated that 93%, 88%, and 87% of variance in these variables, respectively, was attributable to the intervention.Discussion and ConclusionThis study aimed to examine the effect of help-seeking strategies training on social isolation and academic boredom in withdrawn students. The results demonstrated that this training significantly reduced social isolation and improved symptoms of academic boredom. To explain these findings, it can be stated that withdrawn students typically become trapped in social isolation due to difficulties in establishing interpersonal relationships, and help-seeking strategies training breaks this vicious cycle by enhancing communication skills and creating support networks. On the other hand, academic boredom, characterized by disinterest in learning and decreased academic motivation, is prevalent among these students. The help-seeking training alleviated this problem by facilitating access to support resources and reducing feelings of helplessness.The findings of this study are consistent with previous research, such as Newman's (2013) work on reducing social isolation and Kabini Moghaddam et al.'s (2018) studies on improving academic performance. The mechanism of these training effects can be analyzed at multiple levels: at the individual level, help-seeking increases self-efficacy and reduces anxiety; at the interpersonal level, it enhances social interactions; and at the environmental level, it facilitates access to support resources. Accordingly, the large effect size obtained (η² ≈ 0.97) indicates the significant impact of this intervention, although limitations such as purposive sampling and the use of self-report measures should be considered when interpreting these results.Among the limitations of this study are the lack of follow-up assessments and non-random sampling. Future studies should replicate this research with larger samples and across different gender groups. Additionally, implementing follow-up assessments could help understand the persistence of the intervention's effects. Given the observed effectiveness, it is recommended that educational administrators, school counselors, and counseling centers incorporate this training program into their interventions. This study demonstrated that help-seeking strategies training can serve as a cost-effective, school-based intervention that simultaneously addresses both social and academic problems in withdrawn students, representing an important step toward improving the mental health and academic performance of this student population.

Given the rising divorce rate in Iran and the critical role of co-parenting quality in children's mental health, a valid instrument to assess this construct is essential. The present study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Co-Parenting Scale for Dissolved Relationships (MCS-DR) within the Iranian population. In this cross-sectional psychometric study, the Persian version of the questionnaire (MCS-DR-F) was administered to a sample of 207 divorced parents. The factor structure of the questionnaire was evaluated using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Reliability was assessed via Cronbach's alpha (ranging from 0.756 to 0.880), McDonald's omega (0.742 to 0.872), and composite reliability. Convergent validity was examined using the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) index (exceeding 0.50), while discriminant validity was assessed using the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT). To evaluate criterion validity, the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) was utilized. Results indicated a significant positive correlation between conflict dimensions and parenting stress (r = 0.482, p < 0.01) and a significant negative correlation between support and parenting stress (r = -0.395, p < 0.01). The results confirmed that the four-factor structure of the questionnaire—comprising "Support," "Overt Conflict," "Covert Conflict-Internally Regulated," and "Covert Conflict-Externally Regulated"—demonstrated a good fit with the research data (CFI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.06). The findings indicate that the Persian version of the MCS-DR is a valid instrument for assessing various dimensions of post-divorce co-parenting in Iranian society. It can be effectively utilized in research, clinical interventions, and legal contexts related to divorce and child custody. Furthermore, the instrument demonstrated comparable applicability across both mothers and fathers, with no significant gender differences observed in any of the four co-parenting dimensions. Additionally, cultural differences observed in the correlation patterns between co-parenting dimensions, compared to studies conducted in other cultures, may reflect specific cultural characteristics of the Iranian context.IntroductionDivorce profoundly transforms family structures and carries far-reaching consequences for children's psychological well-being. In Iran, the divorce rate reached 47% in early 2023, rising to 67% in Tehran (National Organization for Civil Registration, 2023). Research consistently demonstrates that post-divorce interparental conflict is associated with behavioral problems, anxiety, and depression in children, while cooperative co-parenting serves as a protective factor for their mental health and academic functioning (Ferraro et al., 2016; Van Dijk et al., 2020). Co-parenting after divorce refers to the shared parental responsibility in raising children following marital dissolution and has been identified as a key mechanism in predicting children's post-separation mental health (Lamela & Figueiredo, 2016).The construct is multidimensional, encompassing co-parenting support and conflict, the latter manifesting as overt (direct, hostile exchanges) or covert conflict involving indirect tactics such as triangulating children or undermining the other parent (McHale et al., 2011). Despite its significance, covert conflict remains understudied due to measurement limitations. Of 21 existing co-parenting instruments, only eight assessed covert conflict, and only two targeted divorced families specifically (Mollà Cusí et al., 2020). The MCS-DR (Ferraro et al., 2018) addresses this gap by simultaneously measuring all four co-parenting dimensions and has demonstrated adequate reliability in Spain (α = 0.72–0.89) and Japan (α = 0.71–0.81). However, its psychometric properties had not been examined in Iran, where societal norms restrict post-divorce spousal contact and no validated co-parenting instrument for divorced families existed (Nikparvar et al., 2021). Therefore, this study aimed to examine the factor structure, reliability, and validity of the Persian MCS-DR within the Iranian context. MethodThis cross-sectional psychometric study employed a descriptive-correlational design with CFA. The population comprised divorced parents in Iran with at least one child under 18. Sampling was conducted via convenience and snowball methods through online platforms (Eitaa, Telegram, and Shad) during 2024. Based on Bentler and Chou's (1987) guideline of 5–15 participants per item, and accounting for 15% attrition, 253 participants were recruited. After excluding incomplete or invalid responses, 207 divorced parents remained (51% female, 49% male; mean age = 41.75, SD = 6.32). Mean marriage duration was 9.24 years (SD = 4.18), mean time since divorce was 3.65 years (SD = 2.14), and 70% held primary custody.The Persian MCS-DR-F was developed via forward-backward translation (Brislin et al., 1986), reviewed by two specialists for cultural adequacy, and piloted on 15 participants before final deployment. The instrument comprises 22 items on a five-point Likert scale covering four subscales. The Parenting Stress Index–Short Form (PSI-SF; Abidin, 1995; Iranian validation: Fadaei et al., 2011, α = 0.90) assessed criterion validity. Data were analyzed using SPSS-26 and Amos-26. ResultsCFA confirmed the four-factor structure with good model fit: χ²/df = 2.03; RMSEA = 0.062; CFI = 0.95; TLI = 0.94; GFI = 0.914; SRMR = 0.068. All factor loadings exceeded 0.40. Internal consistency was satisfactory: Support (α = 0.880, ω = 0.872, CR = 0.890, AVE = 0.551), Overt Conflict (α = 0.871, ω = 0.872, CR = 0.879, AVE = 0.537), Self-Controlled Covert Conflict (α = 0.756, ω = 0.759, CR = 0.768, AVE = 0.501), and Externally-Controlled Covert Conflict (α = 0.777, ω = 0.742, CR = 0.868, AVE = 0.504). All AVE values exceeded 0.50, confirming convergent validity, and all HTMT ratios fell below 0.85 (range: 0.057–0.569), confirming discriminant validity. Criterion validity was supported by a significant positive correlation between Overt Conflict and parental distress (r = 0.482, p < 0.01) and a negative correlation between Support and parental distress (r = −0.395, p < 0.01). No significant gender differences were found across any co-parenting dimension (p > 0.05).Discussion and ConclusionThe present study confirmed that the Persian MCS-DR-F possesses sound psychometric properties for assessing post-divorce co-parenting in Iran. The four-factor structure was replicated consistently with the original instrument and cross-cultural validations in Spain and Japan, underscoring its structural robustness across contexts. The adequate measurement of covert conflict dimensions is particularly noteworthy, as this domain has historically been neglected in co-parenting assessment tools (Mollà Cusí et al., 2020). The positive correlation between conflict subscales and parenting stress aligns with theoretical models positing that antagonistic co-parenting heightens parental distress and compromises parenting quality (Feinberg, 2003). The absence of gender differences enhances the instrument's applicability to both mothers and fathers—a practically important finding for clinical and legal use. Cultural differences in intercorrelation patterns, compared to Western studies, likely reflect Iran's sociocultural norms, including restricted post-divorce contact and family-centered values (Nikparvar et al., 2021). Limitations include convenience sampling, reliance on self-report measures, and the absence of test-retest reliability data. Future research should employ larger and geographically diverse samples, incorporate both parents' perspectives simultaneously, and examine measurement invariance across custody and gender groups. Practically, the MCS-DR-F can be utilized by clinicians to identify dysfunctional co-parenting patterns, by family courts to inform custody decisions, and by counselors designing post-divorce support programs.

The present study aimed to investigate the role of self-esteem, emotional reactivity, and interpersonal sensitivity in predicting social anxiety symptoms among high school students, emphasizing the mediating role of emotional balance. This research employed a descriptive-correlational design based on structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population included all second-grade high school students in Khoy city during the 2024–2025 academic year (N = 4,621). A sample of 450 students was selected using a multistage cluster sampling method. The research instruments included the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), the Emotional Reactivity Scale (Nock et al., 2008), the Interpersonal Sensitivity Measure (Boyce & Parker, 1989), the Affect Balance Scale (Bradburn, 1969), and the Social Phobia Inventory (Connor et al., 2000). Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation and structural equation modeling techniques. The findings revealed a significant negative relationship between self-esteem and social anxiety (β = -0.32, p < 0.01). Moreover, emotional reactivity and interpersonal sensitivity showed significant positive relationships with social anxiety (β = 0.35 and β = 0.33, respectively; p < 0.01). Emotional balance had a significant negative direct effect on social anxiety (β = -0.45, p < 0.001), and its mediating role in the relationships between the independent variables and social anxiety was also confirmed. The indirect effects were significant as well. These results suggest that emotional balance can explain part of the influence of internal and interpersonal factors on adolescents’ social anxiety. The findings highlight the importance of teaching emotional regulation skills, strengthening self-esteem, and implementing cognitive-emotional interventions to reduce adolescents’ vulnerability to social anxiety. IntroductionAdolescence, the developmental period between 12 and 18 years of age, is characterized by extensive biological, cognitive, and emotional changes and is marked by identity crises, transformations in body image, peer pressure, and family conflicts (Sharp et al., 2018). This period is associated with mood fluctuations, decreased self-confidence, and academic and social challenges, which can render adolescents vulnerable to psychological problems (Ausubel, 2002; Adeyi, 2023). One of the most common of these problems is social anxiety, which has widespread negative consequences for academic performance and quality of life (de Lijster et al., 2018). Research indicates that three psychological factors—low self-esteem, emotional reactivity, and interpersonal sensitivity—play a prominent role in the development of social anxiety. Low self-esteem is associated with an increased fear of negative evaluation and heightened social avoidance (Sobhani & Niknam, 2025; Hiller et al., 2017). Emotional reactivity, due to intense and maladaptive responses to stimuli, disrupts emotion processing and exacerbates social anxiety (Stoddard et al., 2017). Interpersonal sensitivity, which involves fear of rejection and exaggerated interpretation of social cues, is also recognized as a significant predictor of social anxiety (Hall et al., 2005; Lampe, 2016). Emotional balance, reflecting the ability to regulate emotions, is diminished in anxious adolescents and may mediate the impact of the aforementioned factors on social anxiety (Thaddeus, 2024). Given the limited comprehensive models in this area, the present study seeks to examine whether emotional balance can mediate the relationship between self-esteem, emotional reactivity, interpersonal sensitivity, and social anxiety among adolescents. MethodsThis study employed a descriptive–correlational design and was based on structural equation modeling. The statistical population comprised 4,621 high school students in Khoy, Iran during the 2024–2025 academic year. Multi-stage cluster sampling was used: first, the city districts were selected as clusters, and then public and private schools within each cluster were randomly chosen. Two classes were randomly selected from each school, yielding a total of 450 students, in accordance with Kline’s (2023) rule for minimum sample size. Inclusion criteria were enrollment in grades 10–12, age between 15 and 18 years, and parental consent. Data were collected anonymously, in compliance with ethical standards, following informed consent. Participation was voluntary with the option to withdraw at any time. Measurement instruments included:Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965)Social Anxiety Scale (Connor et al., 2000)Emotional Reactivity Questionnaire (Nock et al., 2008)Interpersonal Sensitivity Scale (Boyce & Parker, 1989)Emotional Balance Scale (Bradburn, 1969)Data were collected in coordination with schools through in-person administration of self-report questionnaires. After coding and removal of identifying information, data were entered into SPSS. Analyses included descriptive statistics and structural equation modeling using SmartPLS. Throughout all stages, ethical principles, confidentiality, and access to counseling services were maintained. ResultsData from 450 high school students in Khoy city were analyzed. The sample was balanced in terms of gender, grade level, and age. Descriptive analyses indicated that boys had higher mean scores in self-esteem and emotional balance, whereas girls had higher mean scores in emotional reactivity, interpersonal sensitivity, and social anxiety. Prior to structural model analysis, the data were examined for normality, absence of multicollinearity, and construct reliability and validity, confirming that all necessary conditions were met. Correlation analyses showed that self-esteem was negatively correlated with threat-related variables (emotional reactivity, interpersonal sensitivity, and social anxiety) and positively correlated with emotional balance. In the direct paths, self-esteem negatively predicted social anxiety (β = –0.320) and positively predicted emotional balance (β = 0.290). Emotional reactivity and interpersonal sensitivity increased social anxiety and decreased emotional balance. Emotional balance also had a strong direct negative effect on social anxiety (β = –0.450). In the indirect paths, emotional balance functioned as a significant mediator. Self-esteem reduced social anxiety via emotional balance, while emotional reactivity (β = 0.170) and interpersonal sensitivity (β = 0.160) indirectly increased social anxiety through decreased emotional balance. Model fit indices indicated excellent fit: SRMR = 0.047, NFI = 0.966, R² for social anxiety = 0.52, and R² for emotional balance = 0.47, demonstrating the model’s strong explanatory power for adolescent social anxiety. Table 3. Direct and Indirect Path CoefficientsVariablesPath Coefficient (β)t-valuep-valueSelf-esteem → Social Anxiety–0.3202.4310.011Self-esteem → Emotional Balance0.2902.4900.001Emotional Reactivity → Social Anxiety0.3502.6510.009Emotional Reactivity → Emotional Balance–0.3803.4580.001Interpersonal Sensitivity → Social Anxiety0.3302.5610.001Interpersonal Sensitivity → Emotional Balance–0.3602.7610.001Emotional Balance → Social Anxiety–0.4505.4290.001Self-esteem → Emotional Balance → Social Anxiety–0.4303.5160.011Emotional Reactivity → Emotional Balance → Social Anxiety0.1702.7800.001Interpersonal Sensitivity → Emotional Balance → Social Anxiety0.1602.9900.009 Discussion and ConclusionThe results of this study indicated that self-esteem, emotional reactivity, and interpersonal sensitivity play a pivotal role in explaining adolescents’ social anxiety, with emotional balance serving as a key mediator among these variables. Self-esteem had both direct and indirect negative effects on social anxiety, suggesting that adolescents with more positive self-concepts experience better emotional balance and lower social anxiety. In contrast, emotional reactivity and interpersonal sensitivity both directly increased social anxiety, with a substantial portion of this effect occurring through diminished emotional balance. These findings are consistent with previous research on the role of self-esteem in reducing social anxiety (Hiller et al., 2017; Liao et al., 2023), the influence of emotional reactivity on emotional disorders (Stoddard et al., 2017; Crum et al., 2021), and the predictive role of interpersonal sensitivity in social anxiety (Harb et al., 2002; Wilhelm et al., 2004). The study’s theoretical framework aligns with cognitive–social models of social anxiety (Wells, 1995), the vulnerability–stress model (Ingram & Luxton, 2005), and emotion regulation theories (Gross, 2015). Within this model, emotional balance acted as a filter, modulating the strength of both risk and protective factors. The findings also have important practical implications: Interventions aimed at enhancing self-esteem, improving emotion regulation skills, training in managing emotional reactions, and reducing interpersonal sensitivity can directly contribute to lowering social anxiety. Despite these contributions, the study has limitations including its cross-sectional design and reliance on self-report measures. Future research is recommended to employ longitudinal designs and more diverse samples to validate and extend these findings.

This study investigated the efficacy of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in alleviating obsessive–compulsive symptoms among university students. A single-group, quasi-experimental design with pre-test, post-test, and one-month follow-up assessments was employed. The study population comprised all undergraduate psychology students at Imam Khomeini International University (Qazvin) during the 2023–2024 academic year. Participants were screened using the Yale–Brown Obsessive–Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS; 1989), and 10 eligible students were recruited via purposive sampling. The intervention consisted of 10 consecutive daily sessions of active tDCS (20 minutes each, 1 mA intensity), targeting the right temporo-parietal junction (P4). The Y-BOCS was administered at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at follow-up. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA. Results indicated that tDCS produced a statistically significant reduction in both obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors (p < 0.05). Post-hoc comparisons revealed significant improvements from baseline to post-test for both symptom dimensions, with follow-up results partially confirming the persistence of treatment effects. These findings suggest that tDCS may represent a promising non-invasive intervention for mitigating obsessive–compulsive symptoms in student populations. Nevertheless, the absence of a control group and the small sample size limit the generalizability of the results, and placebo effects or test–retest influences cannot be ruled out. Future research should employ randomized controlled designs with larger, more diverse samples to confirm these preliminary findings.IntroductionObsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a common and debilitating psychiatric disorder characterized by obsessive thoughts, images, or impulses and compulsive behaviors. Although the age of onset for this disorder varies, adolescence and early adulthood are considered high-risk periods. The prevalence of OCD among students is slightly higher than in the general population, reported to be around 4.2% to 5%. This disorder can lead to significant impairment in individuals’ social and occupational functioning. Neuroimaging studies indicate that OCD is associated with hyperactivity in the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuit, and abnormalities are observed in various brain regions, including the prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, caudate nucleus, thalamus, cerebellum, and parietal cortex. Common treatments for this disorder include pharmacotherapy, especially selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive-behavioral therapy. In recent years, transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) has gained attention as a novel therapeutic approach. This method can effectively modulate neural activities by increasing cortical excitability in the anodal state and decreasing it in the cathodal state.MethodThe aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of transcranial electrical stimulation on the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder in students. This research was conducted using a quasi-experimental design with pretest/posttest/follow-up measurements. The statistical population included all psychology students at Imam Khomeini International University Qazvin, in the academic year 2023–2024. From this population, 10 individuals were selected using a purposeful sampling method after screening with the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS). Inclusion criteria included a score of 16 or higher on the Y-BOCS, no concurrent treatment for OCD, lack of chronic diseases or other psychiatric disorders, and providing informed consent. Exclusion criteria included starting any new treatment during the study and participants’ lack of cooperation at various stages of the study.Participants received anodal transcranial electrical stimulation for 10 days, one 20-minute session daily, at an intensity of 1 mA. The stimulation area was determined based on previous research as the temporo-parietal junction (P4). Immediately after the sessions, a post-test was conducted, and a follow-up test was performed four weeks later. The research instrument was the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (1989). Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26 and repeated measures analysis of variance. ResultsThe findings showed that transcranial electrical stimulation had a significant effect on reducing obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors (p <0.05). Post-hoc test results also indicated a significant difference between pre-test and post-test scores in both components. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that transcranial electrical stimulation is an effective intervention in improving the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder in students, and can have a desirable therapeutic effect by modulating the neural circuits associated with this disorder.Limitations of the study included the participants’ lack of cooperation in forming a control group, limited access to advanced brain stimulation devices approved by the Food and Drug Administration, the limited number of intervention sessions, lack of suitable space for conducting sessions, inability to combine complementary interventions such as cognitive rehabilitation, and the absence of necessary facilities for simultaneous brain mapping.

The present study aimed to examine the relationship between adolescents’ behavioral problems and interpersonal cognitive distortions, with the mediating role of emotional reactivity, among adolescents in Ilam City. This research employed a descriptive–correlational design using structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population consisted of all adolescents aged 12 to 18 years in Ilam City (N = 32,678). A sample of 384 participants was selected using convenience sampling. Data were collected using the Adolescents’ Behavioral Problems Scale, the Interpersonal Cognitive Distortions Scale, and the Emotional Reactivity Scale. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 29 and AMOS version 30. The results indicated that the proposed structural model demonstrated a good fit to the data. Moreover, interpersonal cognitive distortions had significant direct effects on both behavioral problems and emotional reactivity (p< .01), and emotional reactivity showed a significant direct effect on behavioral problems. In addition, the mediating role of emotional reactivity in the relationship between interpersonal cognitive distortions and behavioral problems was confirmed (p< .01). These findings suggest that adolescents who experience higher levels of interpersonal cognitive distortions are more likely to exhibit behavioral problems, particularly when accompanied by heightened emotional reactivity. Therefore, emotional reactivity functions not only as an independent predictor but also as a mediating mechanism linking interpersonal cognitive distortions to adolescents’ behavioral problems. Introduction Adolescence is a sensitive developmental stage marked by rapid changes in cognitive, emotional, and interpersonal functioning. During this period, the way adolescents interpret social interactions and regulate their emotions plays a vital role in shaping behavioral patterns. Interpersonal cognitive distortions—defined as inaccurate, rigid, or biased interpretations of social situations—have been shown to undermine interpersonal functioning and heighten emotional vulnerability (Hamamcı & Büyüköztürk, 2004). These distortions, such as mind-reading, unrealistic expectations, and interpersonal rejection sensitivity, lead adolescents to perceive social contexts as more threatening, conflictual, or ambiguous than they actually are. Consequently, such distorted interpretations can fuel maladaptive emotional responses and increase the likelihood of problematic behavioral outcomes. Emotional reactivity, conceptualized as the intensity, duration, and sensitivity of emotional responses, is another crucial construct for understanding behavioral difficulties in adolescence. High emotional reactivity is associated with lower emotional tolerance, heightened physiological arousal, and increased susceptibility to stress-related behavioral problems (Nock et al., 2008). Previous research has highlighted the interplay between cognitive distortions, emotional vulnerability, and behavioral maladjustment. Despite growing evidence, few studies have simultaneously examined these constructs within a comprehensive structural model. Therefore, the present study aimed to develop and validate a structural model predicting adolescents’ behavioral problems based on interpersonal cognitive distortions, with emotional reactivity serving as a mediating variable. Method This study followed a descriptive–correlational design using structural equation modeling. The research population consisted of 32,678 adolescents aged 12–18 living in the city of Ilam. Based on the number of free parameters in the model (23), the recommended sample size was estimated according to SEM guidelines, and a sample of 384 adolescents was selected through convenience sampling. Three validated instruments were used: Adolescent Behavior Problems Checklist (RBPC; Quay & Peterson, 1987) with 88 items measuring conduct disorder, attention–immaturity problems, social aggression, and anxiety–withdrawal. Interpersonal Cognitive Distortions Scale (ICDS; Hamamcı & Büyüköztürk, 2004) with 19 items assessing rejection sensitivity, unrealistic relationship expectations, and interpersonal misperceptions. Emotional Reactivity Scale (ERS; Nock et al., 2008) with 21 items assessing emotional intensity, emotional sensitivity, and emotional persistence. Data collection was conducted electronically after obtaining informed consent. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS-29 and AMOS-30. Model fit was evaluated using χ²/df, RMSEA, CFI, GFI, NFI, AGFI, TLI, and SRMR. Results Confirmatory factor analysis and SEM results indicated that the hypothesized model achieved an acceptable fit. The fit indices—χ²/df=2.913, RMSEA=0.067, GFI=0.919, CFI=0.943, NFI=0.927, AGFI=0.958, TLI=0.911, and SRMR=0.041—were all within recommended thresholds (Byrne, 2016; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2016). Structural path coefficients showed that interpersonal cognitive distortions significantly predicted behavioral problems (direct effect) and emotional reactivity. Emotional reactivity, in turn, significantly predicted behavioral problems. The bootstrapping test confirmed that emotional reactivity partially mediated the relationship between cognitive distortions and behavioral problems. This indicates that adolescents with distorted interpersonal cognitions tend to experience heightened emotional responses, which subsequently increase the likelihood of behavioral maladjustment. Discussion and Conclusion The findings underscore the central role of interpersonal cognitive distortions in shaping adolescents’ behavioral problems. These results align with prior research emphasizing the significance of maladaptive thought patterns in predicting problem behaviors and psychological distress. The study further highlights the mechanism through which such distortions operate: emotional reactivity. Adolescents who interpret interpersonal situations negatively or unrealistically tend to exhibit stronger, longer-lasting emotional reactions, making them more vulnerable to impulsive, aggressive, or withdrawal-related behaviors. The confirmation of emotional reactivity as a mediating factor provides important implications for psychological interventions. Programs aiming to reduce behavioral problems should integrate approaches that simultaneously target cognitive restructuring, interpersonal skill enhancement, and emotional regulation strategies. Cognitive–behavioral interventions, emotion regulation training, and social skills training may be particularly effective for adolescents exhibiting high emotional reactivity and cognitive distortions. The study, however, has limitations. Convenience sampling restricts the generalizability of the results. Besides, the reliance on self-report measures may introduce response biases. Future research would benefit from longitudinal designs, multi-informant assessments, and culturally diverse samples. In conclusion, the structural model developed in this study provides a theoretically grounded and empirically supported framework for understanding behavioral problems in adolescence. It highlights the centrality of distorted interpersonal cognitions and emotional reactivity, offering valuable insights for researchers, clinicians, and educators.

The present study aimed to examine the mediating role of cognitive disturbance in the relationship between personality traits and chronic pain acceptance among patients with musculoskeletal disorders. This research employed a descriptive-correlational design using path analysis. The study population consisted of patients scheduled for orthopedic surgery at Milad Hospital in Isfahan during the first half of 2024. A purposive convenience sampling method was applied. Initially, 300 patients were selected; after excluding incomplete cases, data from 250 participants were analyzed. The participants completed the NEO Personality Inventory, the Chronic Pain Acceptance Questionnaire, and the Cognitive Disturbance Questionnaire. Data were analyzed using AMOS statistical software. The path analysis results indicated that neuroticism and openness to experience were significantly associated with pain acceptance through the mediating role of cognitive disturbance. In addition, conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, and openness to experience showed direct relationships with pain acceptance. These findings highlight the critical role of cognitive disturbance in linking personality traits to pain acceptance. Accordingly, designing and implementing individual and group interventions focused on cognitive restructuring may facilitate greater pain acceptance among patients. Musculoskeletal chronic disorders are among the most prevalent reasons for seeking medical care, encompassing a broad range of soft tissue injuries, bone-related problems, and the consequences of orthopedic surgeries. Patients with such conditions frequently experience persistent and long-term pain, which can substantially affect their daily functioning, social engagement, and overall quality of life. In recent decades, research has increasingly emphasized the crucial role of psychological factors in the management of and adaptation to chronic pain. A key concept in this context is pain acceptance, which refers to an individual's ability to continue engaging in meaningful activities despite ongoing pain. Individuals with higher levels of pain acceptance tend to exhibit better mental health, greater psychological resilience, and an improved quality of life. Instead of attempting to control or eliminate pain, they acknowledge and accept their experiences, including the intensity of the pain and the thoughts and emotional responses associated with it. Pain acceptance is a dynamic process influenced by multiple factors, including personality traits and cognitive processes, and plays a critical role in facilitating adaptive coping strategies. Personality traits, as relatively stable patterns of emotions, cognitions, and behaviors, play a significant role in shaping individual responses to pain. The widely-used Five-Factor Model of personality, comprising neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, has been extensively applied in pain research. Empirical evidence suggests that higher levels of neuroticism are associated with increased vulnerability to chronic pain and negative emotional responses, whereas higher conscientiousness is linked to more effective coping strategies and greater pain acceptance. Extraversion and openness to experience are also related to enhanced cognitive flexibility, and more adaptive responses to pain, often leveraging proactive social engagement and support. Cognitive dysregulation serves as a key mediating mechanism, explaining how personality traits influence the perception and acceptance of pain. This construct encompasses disorganized and racing thoughts, psychological distress, and difficulties in focusing and regulating emotional responses. Individuals with high levels of cognitive dysregulation often struggle to process pain-related information and respond adaptively. Consequently, this may exacerbate negative thinking patterns, foster ineffective coping strategies, and reduce their capacity for effective pain acceptance and management. This process can cause pain to be perceived not merely as a physical sensation but as a source of heightened psychological distress and functional impairment. The present study investigated the mediating role of cognitive dysregulation in the relationship between personality traits and pain acceptance among patients with musculoskeletal disorders. Using a correlational design and structural equation modeling, 250 patients in orthopedic departments were assessed with standardized measures of personality traits, pain acceptance, and cognitive dysregulation. Data analysis indicated that neuroticism and openness to experience exerted significant indirect effects on pain acceptance through cognitive dysregulation. In contrast, conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, and openness demonstrated significant direct effects. Specifically, higher neuroticism increased cognitive dysregulation, thereby reducing pain acceptance, whereas higher openness decreased cognitive dysregulation, promoting greater acceptance of pain. Conscientiousness, however, exhibited a direct positive effect on pain acceptance, whereas extraversion showed a negative direct effect. These findings underscore the critical role of cognitive dysregulation as a mediator in the relationship between personality traits and pain acceptance, highlighting the need for therapeutic interventions tailored to individual personality profiles. Based on what we found, we believe that any treatment should aim to reduce cognitive dysregulation and boost patients' coping skills. These approaches could really improve their quality of life and overall psychological well-being. Besides, our results suggest that adding personality assessments to a treatment plan could make the whole thing more effective and get patients more involved. It looks like cognitive dysregulation is a key link between neuroticism and openness and how people accept their pain, while conscientiousness directly helps them handle it. Ultimately, these insights give us practical, evidence-based advice for creating personalized strategies to help patients with chronic pain become more resilient and function better in their daily lives. In summary, this study illustrates the complex interplay among personality, cognitive processes, and pain acceptance. Neuroticism, with its tendency toward negative emotions and emotional instability, increases cognitive dysregulation and diminishes pain acceptance. In contrast, openness to experience, characterized by imagination, curiosity, and cognitive flexibility, mitigates cognitive dysregulation and facilitates adaptive acceptance of pain. Conscientious individuals employ organized, goal-directed strategies that improve pain management, independent of cognitive dysregulation. Moreover, extraversion and agreeableness, help people respond better to pain by using social engagement and supportive interactions. These findings not only advance our understanding of psychological factors influencing pain acceptance but also provide practical implications guidance for clinical interventions. Incorporating personality assessments and targeted strategies to reduce cognitive dysregulation within pain management programs may enable patients to achieve greater adaptability, enhanced psychological resilience, and an improved quality of life.

This study aimed to examine the structural model of time perception and overthinking in relation to sleep problems among individuals with chronic depression, with a particular focus on the mediating role of brain lateralization. This applied research employed a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. The statistical population consisted of 160 individuals with chronic depression from Khoy County, selected through purposive sampling. Data were collected using questionnaires on time perception, sleep disturbances, hemispheric dominance, and rumination, and analyzed using SPSS-22 and Smart PLS software. The results indicated that overthinking and distorted time perception were directly associated with sleep problems. Additionally, hemispheric dominance significantly mediated the relationship between time perception and sleep problems, but no significant mediating role was found in the relationship between overthinking and sleep problems. Model fit indices indicated a good fit between the model and the data. The findings highlight the importance of cognitive and neural factors in explaining sleep problems in individuals with chronic depression. These results pave the way for the development of integrated therapeutic interventions focusing on the regulation of hemispheric activity and the management of cognitive factors. management of cognitive factors.IntroductionPersistent Depressive Disorder (PDD), formerly known as dysthymia, is a chronic mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and reduced interest in daily activities. Beyond its emotional and functional consequences, sleep disturbances are among the most prevalent problems experienced by individuals with PDD. Research indicates that a large proportion of depressed individuals suffer from insomnia, fragmented sleep, poor sleep quality, and alterations in sleep architecture, which can further exacerbate depressive symptoms and impair daily functioning (Baglioni et al., 2011). Cognitive factors have been identified as important contributors to sleep problems in this population. In particular, overthinking and rumination are associated with heightened cognitive arousal, repetitive negative thoughts, and difficulties initiating and maintaining sleep (Liu et al., 2023). Additionally, individuals with depression often exhibit distorted time perception, experiencing the passage of time differently from objective reality, which may contribute to sleep-related difficulties (Ogden, 2021). Recent evidence also highlights the role of cerebral lateralization in emotional regulation, temporal processing, and sleep functioning. Imbalances in hemispheric dominance may influence both overthinking and time perception, thereby affecting sleep quality. However, the mediating role of cerebral lateralization in the relationship between overthinking, time perception, and sleep problems among individuals with PDD remains insufficiently explored. Therefore, the present study investigates whether cerebral lateralization mediates the association between overthinking, time perception, and sleep problems in individuals with persistent depressive disorder. MethodsThis applied study employed a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach using Partial Least Squares (PLS-SEM) to examine the relationships among overthinking, time perception, cerebral lateralization, and sleep problems in individuals with Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD). The study population consisted of adults diagnosed with chronic depression in Khoy, Iran, during 2024. Participants were selected through purposive sampling from public and private mental health centers, welfare organizations, and collaborating clinical psychologists. Although the target sample size was 200, data from 160 eligible participants were collected within five months. Sample adequacy was confirmed through model fit indices (NFI = 0.966; SRMR = 0.047) and the absence of multicollinearity. Inclusion criteria were a confirmed diagnosis of chronic depression, a definite age range(18- 65 years), symptom duration of at least one year, and experiencing no recent changes in psychiatric medication. Participants with substantial missing data or invalid responses were excluded. Data were collected through supervised, face-to-face administration of questionnaires following informed consent and ethical approval. Four standardized instruments were used: the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) to assess time perception, the Lynch Sleep Disorders Questionnaire to evaluate sleep problems, the Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument (HBDI) to measure cerebral lateralization, and the Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS) to assess overthinking/rumination. All instruments demonstrated satisfactory reliability in the present study (Cronbach’s α = 0.82–0.89). Data were analyzed using SPSS-22 and SmartPLS through descriptive statistics and PLS-SEM procedures. ResultsA total of 160 individuals with Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD) participated in the study. The mean age of participants was 34.6 years (SD = 8.7), with 57.5% female and 42.5% male. Preliminary analyses confirmed the suitability of the data for structural equation modeling. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test indicated acceptable normality, while sampling adequacy was supported by a KMO value of 0.87 and a significant Bartlett’s test (χ² = 2184.45, p < .001). Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values below three confirmed the absence of multicollinearity.Descriptive analyses showed a mean sleep-problems score of 10.28 (SD = 3.78) and a mean overthinking score of 64.40 (SD = 18.41). Correlation analyses revealed significant associations among cerebral lateralization, time perception, overthinking, and sleep problems. Overthinking was positively associated with sleep problems (r = .654, p < .01), indicating that greater levels of repetitive negative thinking were linked to poorer sleep. Significant relationships were also observed between dimensions of time perception and cerebral lateralization, suggesting complex neurocognitive interactions underlying sleep disturbances in individuals with chronic depression.Structural model results demonstrated that the direct effect of time perception on sleep problems was not significant (β = .084, p = .742), nor was the path from overthinking to cerebral lateralization (β = .006, p = .545). In contrast, overthinking had a significant positive effect on sleep problems (β = .399, p < .001). Besides, cerebral lateralization significantly predicted sleep problems (β = .637, p < .001). Importantly, cerebral lateralization significantly mediated the relationship between time perception and sleep problems (β = .631, p < .001), whereas its mediating effect on the relationship between overthinking and sleep problems was not significant (β = .003, p = .532). Model fit indices indicated excellent fit (SRMR = .047, NFI = .966), supporting the robustness of the proposed structural model. Table. 1Direct and Indirect Path CoefficientsPathβt-valuep-valueResultTime Perception → Sleep Problems0.0840.3300.742Not SignificantTime Perception → Cerebral Lateralization0.991292.747<0.001SignificantOverthinking → Sleep Problems0.39916.284<0.001SignificantOverthinking → Cerebral Lateralization0.0060.6060.545Not SignificantCerebral Lateralization → Sleep Problems0.6373.370<0.001SignificantTime Perception → Cerebral Lateralization → Sleep Problems0.6313.357<0.001Significant MediationOverthinking → Cerebral Lateralization → Sleep Problems0.0030.6260.532Not Significant Mediation Discussion and ConclusionThe present study examined the relationships among overthinking, time perception, cerebral lateralization, and sleep problems in individuals with Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD). The findings indicated that overthinking was significantly associated with sleep disturbances, supporting previous research suggesting that repetitive negative thinking and rumination increase cognitive arousal and disrupt sleep quality (Liu et al., 2023). Participants also demonstrated distorted time perception, a common characteristic of depression, which may contribute to sleep difficulties by increasing self-focused attention and emotional distress (Ogden, 2021). A major contribution of this study was identifying the significant role of cerebral lateralization in sleep problems. Hemispheric imbalance was directly associated with poorer sleep and significantly mediated the relationship between time perception and sleep disturbances. These findings are consistent with evidence showing that increased right-hemisphere dominance is related to negative emotional processing, rumination, and impaired sleep regulation (Inanç et al., 2021). The results highlight the importance of neurocognitive mechanisms in understanding sleep disturbances among individuals with chronic depression. From a practical perspective, interventions targeting both cognitive processes and neural functioning may enhance treatment outcomes. Cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness-based approaches, and neurofeedback may help reduce overthinking, improve temporal processing, and regulate hemispheric activity. Despite limitations related to the cross-sectional design and self-report measures, the findings suggest that sleep disturbances in chronic depression are influenced by the interaction of cognitive and neuropsychological factors, providing valuable directions for future research and intervention development.

The present study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of schema mode therapy on the kind of schema process (in mate selection) and marriage expectations among girls in the pre-marital stage in Isfahan. The research design was a semi-experimental pre-test and post-test type with a control group. The statistical population included all girls in the pre-marital stage in Isfahan in 2023. The sampling method was voluntary, and 30 participants were selected based on the inclusion criteria. They were randomly assigned to the control (15 participants) and experimental (15 participants) groups. To measure the research variables, Awli's mate selection (2007) and Jones and Nelson's Marriage Expectation Questionnaire (1996) were administered before (pre-test) and after (post-test) the intervention. The experimental group underwent schema mode therapy, while the control group received no intervention. Univariate and multivariate analyses of covariance were used to analyze the data. The results showed that schema mode therapy significantly influenced components of marriage expectations (realistic and idealistic) and the process of schema compensation (in mate selection) in the experimental group at the post-test stage (P<0.05). However, the therapy did not significantly affect pessimistic expectations and the process of schema perpetuation (in mate selection). Based on the findings, it can be concluded that schema mode therapy may help modify certain components of marriage expectations and the schema compensation process (in mate selection) among girls in the pre-marital stage.IntroductionOne of the most important interpersonal relationships that adults typically experience is marriage. The role of marriage in the performance of the family is important given the provision of a context for meeting individuals' mental and emotional needs (Kral, 2020). One of the most important factors in choosing a spouse is the early maladaptive schemas. These schemas are long-standing cognitive-era patterns that are rooted in early life experiences and form one's attitudes and behavior (Young et al., 2003).Within this context, expectations of marriage are an important cognitive concept that refers to one's mental perspective on co-living (Osei-tutu et al., 2020) and idealistic, realistic or pessimistic expectations of marriage (Nilfrushan et al., 2011). Distortions or maladaptation in these expectations can significantly disrupt marital functioning and satisfaction (Vannier & O’Sullivan, 2017). An effective approach in this regard is schema mode therapy (Young, 1990; Young et al., 2003). One of the most critical factors influencing marital success or failure is individuals’ attitudes, expectations, and schemas regarding marriage and partner selection (Arntz & Jacob, 2017), as well as the schema modes derived from these schemas (Young et al., 2003).In this regard, the study that pointed to the key role of schemas in the choice of spouse has been monitored. For example, Paknejad et al. (2020) also concluded by implementing a schema -based counseling model that it could reform the attitudes of marriage and reduce their fear of marriage. Mokhtari and colleagues (2021) also reported pre -marriage education with a scheme -based approach to the fear of marriage and the coping modes of single girls. Also, Mokhtari et al. (2022) stated in another study that premarital schema-based education has a significant effect on the tendency to marry and maladaptive schemas of single girls. Therefore, one of the most important factors that can cause the success or failure of marriage is the attitudes, expectations, and schemas of individuals about marriage and choosing a spouse (Arntz & Jacob, 2017) and the schema mode resulting from these schemas (Young et al., 2003).Therefore, considering the importance of the role of the type of schema process and marriage expectations in the process of choosing a spouse, the main goal of the present study is to investigate the effectiveness of schema mode therapy on the type of schema process (in mate selection) and marriage expectations of girls in the premarital stage.MethodThe research design was a semi-experimental pre-test and post-test type with a control group. The statistical population included all girls in the pre-marital stage in Isfahan in 2023. The sampling method was voluntary, and 30 participants were selected based on the inclusion criteria. The instruments used included the Awli's mate selection (2007) and Jones and Nelson's Marriage Expectation Questionnaire (1996). Therapeutic intervention with a schema mode therapy approach was implemented on the experimental group for 11 sessions, two days a week, each session lasting two hours, but the control group did not undergo any intervention. The collected data were analyzed through multivariate and univariate analysis of covariance using SPSS version 25 statistical software. FindingsThe results of univariate analysis of variance showed that the effectiveness of schema mode therapy on realistic expectations and idealistic expectations was significant. In addition, the results indicate that the schema mode therapy was not significant on pessimistic expectations (Table 1). Also, the results of the univariate analysis of covariance indicated that the schema mode therapy significantly reduced the mean scores of the compensation process of schemas (in mate selection). Other results indicated that the schema mode therapy had no effect on the perpetuation process of schemas (in mate selection (Table 2).Table 1. Results of univariate analysis of variance in Mancova text on the components of marriage expectationVariableSum of SquaresdfMean SquareFSig.Eta SquaredPowerRealistic Expectations300.831300.835.450.0270.160.61Idealistic Expectations218.71218.75.180.0310.150.59Pessimistic Expectations1.211.20.2270.6380.0080.075 Table 2: The results of univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) of schema mode therapy on the compensation and perpetuation process of schemas (in mate selection)SourceSum of SquaresdfMean SquareFSig.Eta SquaredPowerPre-test18.52118.525.450.0270.160.61Schema Compensation (Group)26.397126.3977.760.010.220.76Error91.76273.39 Total9366.9330 Pre-test6.0716.070.4350.5150.0160.098Schemaperpetuation(Group)16.01116.011.1470.2940.0410.178Error376.952731.96 Total2752.6430 Discussion and ConclusionThe findings of the present study indicated that schema mode therapy had a significant effect on the compensation process of schemas (in mate selection), but not on the perpetuation process of schemas (in mate selection). These findings are partially consistent with the results of the study by Mardani et al. (2019). Additionally, the current study demonstrated the significant effect of schema mode therapy on the components of idealistic expectations and realistic expectations, while it had no significant effect on pessimistic expectations, which is relatively consistent with the findings of Mokhtari et al. (2022).To explain the findings, it can be stated that schema mode therapy, by focusing on activating and strengthening the Healthy Adult mode and utilizing various techniques, enhanced the flexibility of the overcompensating coping style and thereby reduced the compensation process in mate selection. Due to the link between the perpetuation process and the Submissive Surrender mode, as well as passive behaviors and schema-driven attraction in partner selection, this component appeared resistant to treatment and likely requires more prolonged interventions.Schema mode therapy, through increasing awareness of schemas and modes and employing cognitive, experiential, and behavioral techniques, moderated maladaptive modes and strengthened the Healthy Adult mode, which in turn led to an enhancement of realistic expectations and a reduction in idealistic expectations (arising from the Demanding Parent mode) (Sarshoghi, 2023). On the other hand, due to the deep-rooted nature of schemas in the disconnection and rejection domain and the prevailing cultural pessimism among girls toward their in-laws, this approach had no significant effect on pessimistic expectations, and such schemas were more resistant to change (Khoshnevis et al., 2017; Rafiei et al., 2015; Sarshoghi, 2023).One limitation of the study was the non-random sampling method, which may affect the generalizability of the results. It is recommended that future researchers conduct similar studies on boys in the premarital stage and in different cities and cultures using random sampling methods. In conclusion, schema mode therapy can be considered an effective intervention in modifying certain components of marital expectations and the compensation process of schemas in girls in the premarital stage and can be incorporated into premarital counseling programs.

The present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of self-control in the relationship between parental psychological control and smartphone addiction. This research employed a descriptive-correlational design using structural equation modeling. The statistical population included all high school students in Khorramabad during the 2024–2025 academic year. A total of 400 students were selected through convenience sampling. The data collection instruments included the Parental Psychological Control Scale ,the short form of the Smartphone Addiction Questionnaire , and the Brief Self-Control Scale . Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to summarize the findings, while Pearson correlation and structural equation modeling were used for data analysis through SPSS and AMOS software. The results revealed a significant positive relationship between parental psychological control and smartphone addiction (p< 0.01). Additionally, a significant negative relationship was found between self-control and smartphone addiction (p< 0.01). The structural model analysis indicated that self-control significantly mediates the relationship between parental psychological control and smartphone addiction (p< 0.01). Excessive psychological control by parents undermines adolescents’ self-control skills, thereby paving the way for unhealthy dependence on smartphones. Based on this, it can be concluded that in order to take measures to reduce smartphone addiction among teenagers, the focus should be on decreasing parents' psychological control and increasing self-control in adolescents.IntroductionNowadays, smartphones have become an essential part of our lives, bringing us convenience and enjoyment (Liu et al., 2023). However, a serious issue that has emerged is the phenomenon of smartphone addiction, which may have specific negative impacts on daily life (Billieux et al., 2015). Given the potentially significant adverse effects of smartphone addiction, it is crucial for researchers to examine the underlying psychological mechanisms and antecedents that may put individuals at risk for this addictive behavior. One variable that may influence smartphone addiction is parental psychological control (Li & Liu, 2025; Chen et al., 2025). Parental psychological control hinders the fulfillment of basic psychological needs such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In turn, this increases the likelihood of negative behaviors, such as problematic smartphone use.Ultimately, it can be said that parental psychological control is one of the precursors of smartphone addiction. Therefore, identifying the mediating variables through which parental psychological control affects students’ smartphone use is essential. Self-control is a fundamental component of an individual's personality system and refers to a person's ability to regulate and manage behavior, emotions, cognitive activities, and more, based on social standards or personal will (Cai et al., 2021). In fact, self-control is one of the most important manifestations of adolescent socialization and a key factor in resisting stress, negative emotions, and even high-risk external behavioral problems during adolescence. Research has shown that self-control plays a mediating role between various dimensions of parenting and externalizing behaviors (Muftić & Updegrove, 2018).Studies have also shown that psychological control impedes the development of self-control in adolescents, which in turn can lead to problematic internet and smartphone use (Qian et al., 2022). Based on the above, it can be concluded that parental psychological control may influence students’ smartphone usage by affecting their self-control. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the mediating role of self-control in the relationship between parental psychological control and smartphone addiction. MethodThe present study employed a descriptive-correlational research design using structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population consisted of all high school students (second level of secondary education) in Khorramabad during the 2024–2025 academic year. From this population, a sample of 400 students was selected using convenience sampling. The data collection instruments included the Parental Psychological Control Scale (Soenens et al., 2010), the short form of the Smartphone Addiction Questionnaire (Lin et al., 2017), and the Brief Self-Control Scale (Tangney et al., 2004). Descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation were used to describe the data, and Pearson correlation tests as well as structural equation modeling (SEM) were conducted using SPSS-26 and AMOS-24 software. ResultsIn structural equation modeling, various fit indices are used to evaluate the model. The results of examining some of them have shown that these indices are within the normal range; (X2/df=2.09, GFI=0.95, IFI=0.98, CFI=0.98, RMSEA=0.08) therefore, the conceptual model of this study has a good fit. Table (1) presents the significance of the direct path coefficients in the model, all of which were found to be statistically significant. Table 1. Coefficients of the direct paths of the modelPSobel testtSEstandard coefficientsDirect effect0.001-6.4730.0470.187Parent's psychological control on smartphone addiction0.001--4.9370.138-0.648Parents' psychological control on self-control0.001--4.2680.106-0.692Self-control on smartphone addiction0.0013.812-0.1620.448Parental Psychological Control on Smartphone Addiction Through Self-Control0.001--0.2090.635Total Effect Table (1) shows that the direct effect of parental psychological control on smartphone addiction is positive and significant (p<0.01), and its direct effect on self-control is negative and significant (p<0.01). The direct effect of self-control on smartphone addiction is also negative and significant (p<0.01). An examination of the significance of indirect effects revealed that parental psychological control can indirectly and positively influence students' smartphone addiction through self-control in a significant way (p<0.01). DiscussionThis study aimed to examine the mediating role of self-control in the relationship between parental psychological control and smartphone addiction. The results showed that the conceptual model had a good fit and that parental psychological control influenced adolescent smartphone addiction both directly and indirectly (through the mediation of self-control). To explain these findings, we can argue that parental psychological control requires children to obey the views and conform to the expectations of adults. Since this approach conflicts with adolescents' psychological need for independent development (Chen et al., 2025), such control can lead to depression, feelings of inadequacy, or intentional defiance of parental demands. To escape these negative emotions, adolescents may turn to excessive smartphone use. Furthermore, parental psychological control may hinder the development of adolescent autonomy, leading to insufficient self-regulation when facing temptation and pressure, which in turn results in reduced self-control (Lin & Li, 2024). In other words, parental psychological control may negatively affect adolescents' self-control through intrusive involvement in their lives. This low self-control then causes adolescents to resort to excessive smartphone use to regulate their emotions or escape unpleasant feelings, leaving them with less ability to resist the temptation to use their phones.

Given the increasing expansion of psychotherapy services delivered via telephone and the importance of ensuring the quality of these services, attention to the factors affecting their effectiveness is essential.This research aimed to explore and deeply interpret therapists' experiences in order to extract practical insights for optimizing the quality of telephone psychotherapy services. The present research employed an applied methodology using an interpretive phenomenological qualitative design. The study population consisted of active therapists in Tehran during the years 2024-2025. Purposeful criterion-based sampling was used and continued until data saturation was reached, ultimately selecting 15 therapists. Participants underwent semi-structured interviews. Data analysis was performed using Colaizzi's seven-step method, with MAXQDA.20 software utilized for coding. Data analysis resulted in the identification of 80 initial concepts, 11 sub-themes, and 4 main themes. To examine the validity and accuracy of the research data, four measurement criteria were used, including credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. The main themes included: Therapists' Personal Competencies (Basic counseling skills, Psychological capacities of therapists, Therapists' mental health management, Objective indicators of effectiveness), Effective Contexts in Telephone Counseling Services (Infrastructural and Psychosocial), Individual Therapist Strategies (Physical self-care and Psychological-spiritual self-care), Macro-level Strategies (Operational support, Psychological support, and Professional development). The identification of the "need for organizational psychological support" for therapists is highlighted as a novel achievement of this research. The present findings represent a significant step toward improving remote psychological services, and given the expansion of such services, they call for the attention and planning of policymakers and center managers, particularly in the area of systematic support for therapists. Introduction Teletherapy, which involves the use of text-based or audio/video tools to connect clients and counselors remotely, has been recognized as a legitimate means of conducting psychotherapy (Calkins, 2021). This approach, characterized by its accessibility and rapid responsiveness, has gained particular popularity among certain groups (Paul et al., 2016). Overall, the topic of telephone-based psychological services — including their advantages, disadvantages, and potential improvements — has long been of interest to researchers (Haas, 1996). Moreover, given the professional role of psychotherapists in society and the occupational challenges they commonly face, the need for strategies aimed at improving their working conditions is evident. Although the body of research on online therapy continues to expand (Khan et al., 2021), there remains a notable lack of qualitative studies that explore how to enhance or more effectively utilize the potential of this method—particularly in Iran, where distinct cultural characteristics may influence its application. Therefore, the researchers in this study sought to address the following question: How can the quality of telephone-based psychotherapy services be optimized from the perspective of professionals active in this field? Method This study employed a qualitative approach using the interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). The study population consisted of counselors and therapists practicing in Tehran Province during the years 2024–2025. Accordingly, participants were selected using purposive sampling. Participants were recruited through public announcements on social media and direct researcher presence at telephone counseling centers officially registered with the Iranian Psychological and Counseling Organization. Data were collected using a semi-structured, researcher-designed interview whose main focus was to explore therapists’ perspectives on factors contributing to success. For data analysis, the Colaizzi’s Method was applied, and MAXQDA 20 software was used. Findings The average age of the participants was 33.35 years. About 80% held a Master’s degree, one participant held a Ph.D., and the rest were Ph.D. candidates. About 73.33% worked in the public sector, whereas 26.66% were employed in private telephone counseling centers. The average years of experience in telephone counseling was 4.5. Most participants worked in the fields of family counseling or clinical psychology. Table 1. Main Themes, Sub-Themes, and Initial Concepts of Participants’ Experiences Main Themes Sub-Themes Number of participants expressing this theme Initial Concepts Therapists’ Personal Competencies Basic Counseling Skills 14 keeping knowledge up to date; continuous learning; active listening ability; clear expression; calm tone; verbal fluency; empathy; appropriate reflection; work experience; time management; unconditional acceptance; managing transference and countertransference; observing professional ethics Therapist’s Psychological Capacities 10 patience; acceptance of diverse clients; awareness of own emotions; awareness of own beliefs; behavior management; resilience; use of emotional intelligence Therapist’s Mental Health Management 9 having a personal therapist; consulting with colleagues; taking leaves or breaks; sharing emotions; reducing mental preoccupation; closing client cases after completion of counseling Objective indicators of improvement 11 client satisfaction level; providing continuity of treatment; reduction in complaints; improvement of clients’ symptoms; accurate diagnosis Effective Contexts in Telephone Counseling Services Infrastructural 13 eliminating geographical limitations; saving time; clients’ comfort in expressing problems; broad population coverage Psychosocial 7p Reducing social stigma; Increasing honesty; Psychological safety; Compatibility with modern lifestyles Therapists’ Individual Strategies Physical Self-care 10 exercise; attention to sleep and nutrition; practicing muscle relaxation; focusing on proper breathing Psychological-Spiritual Self-care 15 learning from experienced professionals; reading/studying; traveling; resting ; listening to instrumental music; maintaining friendships; timely service to clients; mindfulness; gratitude; meaning reconstruction Macro-level Strategies (Organizational and Counseling Center) Operational Support 13 holding necessary workshops for therapists and specific internships in telephone counseling; receiving supervision; promoting telephone counseling culture; reducing prank or nuisance calls; managing call volume; allocating sufficient time for counseling; financial support for therapists; providing supervisor feedback; continuous monitoring; ensuring transparency of the counseling process for clients Psychological Support 12 motivating therapists; addressing job burnout; professional incentives; considering occupational acceptance and suitability Professional Development and Improvement 13 obtaining professional telephone counseling certifications; creating personalized client portals; forming a specialized telephone counseling committee; developing a comprehensive telephone counseling protocol; establishing a client feedback rating system on counseling quality; establishing a therapist feedback rating system on service quality; creating secure digital platforms; implementing client follow-up systems; enabling audio and video communication systems; developing performance evaluation systems; improving workplace environments; providing dedicated physical spaces for counselors Discussion The aim of the present study was to examine ways to optimize the quality of telephone psychotherapy services based on therapists’ lived experiences. The first main theme identified was therapists’ personal competencies. This theme indicates that a therapist’s competence is not solely based on theoretical knowledge; rather, it involves an interconnection of skill, capacity, and well-being, which together make it possible to optimize therapy in the context of telephone-based psychotherapy. The two concepts of basic counseling skills and objective indicators of effectiveness are consistent with the findings of Khan et al. (2021). The second main theme, unlike the first—which was at the micro level—was identified as effective contexts in telephone counseling services. This theme aligns with many previous studies. Convenience and ease due to the absence of geographical and temporal restrictions (Bird et al., 2019), as well as continuous accessibility (Zainudin et al., 2021), are among the capacities of this therapeutic modality that have contributed to its increasing use. Moreover, comfort and anonymity, reduction of stigma and labeling (Nagarajan & S, 2021), flexibility of the therapeutic process (Khan et al., 2021), and the creation of a safe therapeutic environment (Cipolletta & Mocellin, 2021) are additional characteristics that have expanded the application of online services, particularly telephone psychotherapy. The third main theme consisted of individual strategies that, according to therapists, could enhance the success and optimization of telephone psychotherapy if implemented. Emphasis on self-care—both physical and psycho-spiritual—as a factor that can improve this therapeutic process has not been explicitly mentioned in previous research within the Iranian cultural context, making it a novel contribution of the present study. This is significant because self-care also has a cultural dimension: In some cultures, mental health professionals are encouraged toward excessive self-sacrifice, which can be detrimental (Ko & Min Lee, 2021). Finally, the fourth main theme concerned macro-level strategies (organizational and counseling center). This theme emphasizes the necessity for institutions to evolve from being service-oriented organizations to learning organizations, where support is multidimensional and continuous. It underscores that quality improvement interventions must simultaneously target all three levels. Counseling centers and organizations can enhance therapeutic service quality by supporting therapists through the triad of operational strategies, psychological support, and professional development initiatives.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the fit of the structural model of academic buoyancy based on academic engagement and achievement motivation with the mediating role of academic vitality in the students of the second secondary level of Sanandaj city. This research was a descriptive, correlational research, and in terms of its implementation method, it was based on structural equations. The statistical population of the present study was high school students in Sanandaj in the 2023-2024 academic year. For this purpose, 343 people were selected using the available method based on statistical assumptions in the G-Power software. To collect data, the academic buoyancy questionnaire, academic engagement questionnaire, achievement motivation questionnaire, and academic vitality questionnaire were used in person and online. To analyze the data, Spss-26 and Amos-26 software were used. The results of data analysis showed that the research model had a good fit. The direct effect of achievement motivation (p <0.001 and β=0.337), academic engagement (p <0.01 and β=0.331), and academic vitality (p <0.05 and β=0.246) on academic buoyancy was positive and significant. The indirect results of academic engagement (p <0.05 and β=0.159) on academic buoyancy as mediator of academic vitality were positive and significant. Also, the indirect effect of achievement motivation (p <0.05 and β=0.070) on academic buoyancy with the mediating role of academic vitality was positive and significant. Therefore, increasing academic engagement and achievement motivation increases academic vitality and academic retention. Introduction One of the significant concerns of the educational system of societies is the students’ academic success (Putwain et al., 2020). Academic buoyancy is one of the structures that influence students' educational path and helps them in solving academic problems (Colmar et al., 2019). However, this construct is influenced by behavioral-emotional engagement (Thomas & Allen, 2021). Academic engagement refers to the willingness of students to spend appropriate time and energy on academic activities. The results of the study (Perkmann et al., 2021) indicate that academic engagement is one of the necessary prerequisites for academic retention. Also, a review of the research by Azadian Boroujerdi et al. (2022) and Jafari and Abdi Zarrin (2022) showed that academic engagement has a significant effect on academic retention and can be a suitable predictor of it. In addition to academic engagement, achievement motivation has been mentioned as an influential variable related to academic buoyancy (Datu & Yang, 2021) and has been defined as the internal desire and willingness to complete a task and assignment successfully to achieve a degree of competence in work and education (Kalaja et al., 2009). A review of the past research indicated that academic engagement and achievement motivation, in addition to affecting academic buoyancy (Datu & Yang, 2021), are also effective on academic vitality (Martin & Marsh, 2020). Academic vitality is defined as the mood of learners to solve and resolve academic problems and refers to the responses and ways in which students deal with academic problems and challenges (Yaqubi et al., 2022). A review of research has shown that academic engagement and achievement motivation affect students' academic vitality (Granziera et al., 2024); and academic vitality also affects academic buoyancy (Putwain & Wood, 2023). Therefore, according to the aforementioned statements, it seems that academic vitality can play a mediating and intermediary role in the effect of academic engagement and achievement motivation on learners' academic buoyancy. Given that students are exposed to the overwhelming stresses of their education and their mental and physical health may be at risk, academic buoyancy is of particular importance. A review of the research background indicated that no study has examined these important and influential variables on academic buoyancy in the form of a comprehensive model by considering their mediating relationships in students. Therefore, there is a significant research gap in this field, especially in domestic sources; therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of structural modeling of academic buoyancy based on academic engagement and achievement motivation with the mediating role of academic vitality in students. Figure 1 presents the conceptual model of the present study. Figure 1: Conceptual model of the research Method This research is a quantitative, descriptive-correlational study. The statistical population of the present study included all second-year high school students in Sanandaj in the academic year 2023-2024. The statistical sample size was determined using G-POWER software, considering alpha of 0.01, test power of 0.99, effect size of 0.10, with 2 predictor variables and 5% dropout rate. Accordingly, 334 people were determined using the method. So that one-third of the questionnaires were distributed online and the rest were distributed in person. In this study, all ethical principles, including informed consent, and confidentiality of participant information were observed. Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation test, and structural equation modeling with SPSS-26 and Amos-26 software were used to analyze the data in the present study. The instruments of this research included the Martin and Marsh (2008) academic buoyancy questionnaire, Hermans' achievement motivation (1970), Fredericks et al.'s (2004) academic engagement, and Martin and Marsh's (2006) academic vitality questionnaires distributed among the research sample. Results The proposed structural model demonstrated a good fit with the observed data, indicating that the model is acceptable. In Table 1, the parameters of standard coefficients, T value, standard error and significance level for each of the causal paths were also examined. Based on these results, achievement motivation (p < 0.001 and β = 0.337), academic engagement (p < 0.01 and β = 0.331), academic vitality (p < 0.05 and β = 0.246) have a positive and significant effect on academic retention. Achievement motivation (p < 0.001 and β = 0.283) and academic engagement (p < 0.001 and β = 0.648) have a positive and significant effect on academic vitality. Table 1: Direct effects between the variables of the research Variables S.R. W C.R. S.E. P achievement motivation academic buoyancy 0.337 4.26 0.025 0.000 ** academic engagement academic buoyancy 0.331 3.04 0.023 0.002 ** academic vitality academic buoyancy 0.246 2.21 0.122 0.027 * achievement motivation academic vitality 0.283 3.70 0.022 0.000 ** academic engagement academic vitality 0.468 7.55 0.016 0.000 ** * p < 0.5 ** p < 0.01 In addition to examining direct effects, Table 2 also examines indirect and mediating effects using bootstrap tests. Based on these results, the indirect effect of achievement motivation (p < 0.05 and β = 0.070) on academic retention with the mediating role of academic vitality is significant. Also, the indirect effect of academic engagement (p < 0.05 and β = 0.159) on academic retention with the mediating role of academic vitality is significant. Table 2: Coefficients and significance of the effects of research variables indirectly Predictor variable Mediating variable Dependent variable Type of effect standardized Indirect effect S.E. Lower Bounds Upper Bounds P achievement motivation academic vitality academic buoyancy Indirect 0.070 0.017 0.015 0.140 0.022 * academic engagement academic vitality academic buoyancy Indirect 0.159 0.020 0.053 0.293 0.017 * * p < 0.5 ** p < 0.01 Discussion The findings of this study indicated that the structural modeling of academic buoyancy based on the research variables had a favorable fit. In this context, the results of this study are indirectly consistent with the results of the research of Jafari and Abdi Zarrin (2022), Martin and Marsh (2020), Putwain et al. ( 2020). In the theoretical explanation of this finding, it can be noted that academic buoyancy specifically refers to having perseverance in the face of difficulties and obstacles in the educational field. This important construct in the educational field is affected by academic engagement and motivation for progress, so that by strengthening the engagement of students, their acceptance of difficulties and perseverance in difficult situations will increase. As a result of this process, the level of student retention will also improve. One of the research results indicated a positive and significant effect of academic engagement on students’ retention. The results of this part of the study were consistent with the results of Wang and Hofkens (2020). Enthusiastic students tend to spend more time and effort on their studies, which increases their ability to overcome challenges. Therefore, academic engagement is considered a key predictor of academic retention. Another finding of this study indicated a positive and significant effect of achievement motivation on student retention. In this regard, the results of this study are consistent with the results of Datu and Yang (2021). Achievement motivation, defined as the driving force for achieving success, plays an important role in students' academic path (Datu & Yang, 2021). Students who are highly motivated to achieve success tend to set specific goals and use self-regulatory strategies that help them. Therefore, achievement motivation can help strengthen academic buoyancy. Another finding of this study was the positive and significant effect of academic vitality on students' academic buoyancy. Academic vitality refers to the level of interest and involvement students show towards their educational efforts and includes emotional and motivational aspects. On the other hand, academic buoyancy involves a learner's commitment to continue their educational path despite challenges and obstacles. Therefore, the current findings help gather evidence in line with the importance of cultivating academic vitality to promote buoyancy in upper secondary school students. Other results of this study indicated the significant role of academic vitality as a mediating variable between academic engagement and buoyancy. In explaining this finding, it can be mentioned that academic engagement is a multidimensional construct that motivates students to participate in their educational activities. However, simply having engagement is not enough to ensure retention. The role of academic vitality as a mediating factor between engagement and retention is important in this context. Finally, this finding emphasizes the complex relationships between academic engagement, retention, and vitality among upper secondary school students. Another finding of the present study indicated a significant effect of achievement motivation on academic retention with the mediating role of academic vitality in students. The multifaceted nature of motivation plays an important role in determining how students approach their studies and their buoyancy in the face of challenges. Moreover, academic vitality, which is defined as the energy and engagement that students bring to their academic efforts, acts as a vital link between motivation and retention. Overall, this study elucidated a model of academic retention that pointed to the role of academic engagement and achievement motivation, and identified academic vitality as a mediating variable. Among the limitations of the present study, it can be noted that the wide age range of the subjects (16-19) might have affected the results of the study; therefore, it is suggested that future studies conduct the study in older age groups and compare its results with this study. The lack of gender separation in this study may limit the generalizability of the findings. In this regard, it is suggested that the relationship between the research variables be examined based on the gender factor. In addition, it is necessary to examine the role of parental participation in fostering academic engagement and retention in students and to examine the effect of extracurricular activities on academic vitality and general motivation for student success. It is also suggested that training programs for teachers be developed that focus on strategies for promoting academic engagement and retention in classroom.

The present study aimed to determine the role of inferiority complex and distress tolerance in predicting addiction tendencies with respect to the mediating role of experiential avoidance in students. The present study design was correlational using structural equation modeling. The study isbasic research in terms of its purpose. In this cross-sectional study, 250 students at Khoy Azad University participated and completed addiction tendencies, inferiority complex, acceptance and action, and distress tolerance questionnaire. Statistical analysis of the data was performed using SPSS and Amos software. The results of the statistical analysis indicated that both inferiority complex and distress tolerance variables directly and indirectly, through the mediation of experiential avoidance, significantly predict students' addiction tendencies. Distress tolerance, experiential avoidance, and inferiority complex variables predicted 28%, 17%, and 14% of the variance of addiction tendencies as the criterion variable, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that in order to take measures to reduce the tendency towards addiction in students, one should focus on improving feelings of inferiority and distress tolerance. Besides, they should consider improving experiential avoidance.IntroductionDrug addiction is a serious public health issue that significantly impacts individual, family, and societal well-being (Iswardani et al., 2022). The global consumption of illicit substances has increased, and a large portion of the population requires treatment for substance-related disorders (Ho, 2022). Several theoretical approaches explain the tendency toward addiction, including the access to substances, social disorganization, and individual psychological traits (Grasman et al., 2016). Among psychological factors, feelings of inferiority and distress tolerance have received growing attention. Feelings of inferiority are associated with low self-esteem, life dissatisfaction, and mental health problems, all of which may facilitate substance use (Zhao et al., 2020). Similarly, low distress tolerance is linked to higher substance use and poor emotional regulation (Simons & Gaher, 2005). In this context, experiential avoidance is considered a key mediating variable between feelings of inferiority and distress tolerance on the one hand, and addiction tendency on the other. While experiential avoidance may temporarily reduce emotional discomfort, rigid or excessive use of this strategy can be harmful and is often associated with anxiety, depression, and increased substance use (Fonseca et al., 2018). Given the high prevalence of drug use among the youth, especially those aged 18 to 25, identifying the psychological predictors of addiction is essential. This study aims to investigate whether experiential avoidance mediates the relationship between feelings of inferiority and distress tolerance with addiction tendency among university students.MethodsThe study population comprised all students of Islamic Azad University, Khoy Branch, during the 2024-2025 academic year, from which 250 individuals were selected as the sample using a non-random convenience sampling method. This sample size exceeded the recommended minimum for structural equation modeling studies (approximately 200 participants) to account for potential dropouts and invalid responses. Inclusion criteria included voluntary participation and the absence of physical illnesses or psychological disorders, assessed by an experienced specialist. Exclusion criteria were withdrawal from completing questionnaires or providing invalid responses. The instruments used included the Addiction Tendency Questionnaire(1992), the Comparative Feelings of Inferiority Questionnaire(1990), the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ-II)(2011), and the Distress Tolerance Scale(2005), all of which demonstrated acceptable validity and reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.78 to 0.90 in the current study. Data were analyzed using SPSS and Amos software, with the proposed model evaluated based on statistical assumptions such as normality of distribution, absence of multicollinearity, and error independence.FindingsThe results of the structural equation modeling analysis indicated that both feelings of inferiority and distress tolerance directly and indirectly, through the mediation of experiential avoidance, significantly predicted addiction tendencies among students. Distress tolerance, with a standardized path coefficient of 0.42 (p<0.01), experiential avoidance with a path coefficient of -0.31 (p<0.05), and feelings of inferiority with a path coefficient of 0.27 (p<0.05) significantly predicted addiction tendencies. These variables accounted for 28%, 17%, and 14% of the variance in addiction tendency, respectively. Indirect effects via experiential avoidance were also significant (p<0.05), as assessed using the bootstrapping method. Model fit indices demonstrated a good fit: The chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (χ²/df) was 2.3. The Comparative Fit Index (CFI), 0.94. The Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), 0.92, and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) was 0.06. These findings suggest that distress tolerance had the greatest impact on predicting addiction tendency, while experiential avoidance exerted a reverse and reductive effect.Discussion and ConclusionThe present study aimed to examine the role of feelings of inferiority and distress tolerance in predicting addiction tendency among students, considering the mediating role of experiential avoidance. Statistical analysis indicated that both feelings of inferiority and distress tolerance significantly predict students’ tendency toward addiction through the mediating effect of experiential avoidance. Previous research has shown that individuals may turn to substance use to escape negative emotions associated with low self-worth and poor emotional regulation. However, distress tolerance and inferiority have been less frequently studied as predictors of addiction. The current findings align with those of Tayibi (2021), who emphasized multiple factors contributing to addiction, such as poor coping skills, high stress, lack of emotional control, and maladaptive beliefs about drugs. Feelings of inferiority, a core concept in psychology, refers to an individual's perception of being less capable or valuable than others (Schultz, 2011). This feeling often arises from adverse life experiences or unrealistic social comparisons. It may lead to anxiety, low self-esteem, social withdrawal, and eventually to compensatory risky behaviors like substance abuse (Hasper, 2013). Distress tolerance refers to a person's ability to manage negative emotions and stressful situations without resorting to maladaptive behaviors (Simons & Gaher, 2005). Individuals with low distress tolerance are more likely to use drugs as a coping mechanism (Bernstein et al., 2009). Experiential avoidance, the tendency to avoid unpleasant internal experiences, may provide temporary relief but often leads to long-term psychological issues (Bond et al., 2011). It is considered the opposite of psychological flexibility and may mediate the relationship between inferiority, distress tolerance, and addiction tendency. In sum, the variables studied—inferiority feelings, distress tolerance, and experiential avoidance—play a significant role in addiction tendency. Identifying these factors can inform the development of targeted interventions and preventive programs, particularly for university students. The study was limited to students from the Islamic Azad University of Khoy, reducing the generalizability of the findings. Also, contextual factors such as family environment and interpersonal relationships were not controlled. Future research is encouraged to use tools like interviews for deeper insight. University counseling centers can use these results to design preventive educational workshops and seminars, focusing on enhancing emotional resilience and addressing maladaptive coping strategies.

Rumination and cognitive confusion are common challenges among injured athletes. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) on rumination and cognitive confusion in injured athletes. In this semi-experimental study, 40 injured athletes were randomly assigned to two groups: an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group received ACT for 8 weeks, with two 90-minute sessions per week, while the control group received no intervention. Both groups were assessed at three stages: pre-test (one day before the intervention), post-test (one day after the intervention), and follow-up (two weeks after the post-test). Data were collected using the Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS) and the Mason Cognitive Confusion Questionnaire (MCQ) and analyzed using mixed-design repeated measures ANOVA in SPSS version 23, with a significance level of 0.05. Results indicated that ACT significantly reduced rumination (F = 7.973, p = 0.001, η² = 0.296) and cognitive confusion (F = 46.278, p = 0.001, η² = 0.709) in the experimental group, and these positive effects were maintained during the follow-up period. ACT is suggested as an effective therapeutic approach to reduce rumination and cognitive confusion in injured athletes. By helping athletes accept unpleasant thoughts and feelings and enhancing psychological flexibility, this therapy can contribute to improving their quality of life.IntroductionSports are not only a platform for physical development and skill improvement but also an important environment for shaping personal identity, boosting self-confidence, and experiencing positive emotions. However, athletic injuries are an unavoidable part of sports and often lead to significant physical and mental effects. After an injury, many athletes face not just physical limitations but also notable psychological pressures, including rumination and cognitive confusion (Borders, 2020).Rumination, as a maladaptive cognitive style, involves repetitive and persistent focus on negative thoughts and unpleasant past experiences (Borders, 2020). This pattern of thinking not only diminishes athletes’ concentration and psychological energy but also disrupts their adaptation to injury and return to sports activities (Lundgren et al., 2021). On the other hand, cognitive confusion, characterized by difficulties in processing information, organizing thoughts, and making decisions, may intensify during periods of injury and significantly impair athletes’ psychological functioning (White et al., 2023). The interaction between these two variables threatens athletes’ mental health and has negative effects on rehabilitation quality, motivation, and self-confidence (Van Vugt et al., 2018).In this regard, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), as one of the third-wave behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapies, has received considerable attention (Borders, 2020). ACT emphasizes acceptance of internal experiences instead of avoidance, and prioritizes living in accordance with personal values rather than merely reducing symptoms (Lundgren et al., 2021). By focusing on processes such as acceptance, mindfulness, cognitive confusion, and committed action, ACT helps individuals establish a healthier relationship with their thoughts and emotions. Therefore, ACT can play a crucial role in reducing rumination and alleviating the adverse effects of cognitive confusion in injured athletes (Amouzadeh & Bahrami., 2024).Research in the fields of clinical and sport psychology has demonstrated that ACT-based interventions can effectively improve psychological well-being, enhance quality of life, and reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression (Amouzadeh & Bahrami, 2024; Borders, 2020; Lundgren et al., 2021; White et al., 2023). Nevertheless, only a limited number of studies have specifically examined the effectiveness of ACT on rumination and cognitive confusion in populations of injured athletes (Amouzadeh & Bahrami, 2024). Given that athletic injuries represent a highly challenging condition both physically and psychologically, implementing effective psychological interventions may facilitate the rehabilitation process, increase motivation, and promote a successful return to sports participation (Lundgren et al., 2021).Accordingly, the present study aims to investigate the effectiveness of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) in reducing rumination and cognitive confusion among injured athletes. The findings of this study are expected to enrich the existing body of knowledge, provide practical guidelines for sport psychologists, coaches, and rehabilitation specialists, and underscore the importance of integrating psychological interventions with medical and physiotherapeutic treatments.Materials and MethodsThis semi-experimental study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) on rumination and cognitive confusion in injured athletes. A total of 40 injured athletes were recruited and randomly assigned to two groups: an experimental group and a control group, each consisting of 20 participants. The random assignment ensured that baseline characteristics were balanced across the two groups, minimizing potential selection bias.The experimental group underwent an ACT-based intervention program lasting eight weeks, with two 90-minute sessions per week. These sessions were structured according to established ACT protocols, emphasizing core processes such as acceptance, cognitive confusion, mindfulness, values clarification, and committed action. The control group did not receive any psychological intervention during the study period, allowing for a clear comparison of the treatment effects.Data were collected at three time points: pre-test (one day before the intervention), post-test (one day after the completion of the intervention), and follow-up (two weeks after the post-test). To assess the key variables, the study employed two standardized questionnaires: the Ruminative Response Scale (RRS), designed to evaluate repetitive and reflective thinking patterns, and the Mason Cognitive Confusion Questionnaire (MCQ), measuring levels of cognitive confusion and difficulty in processing information. Both instruments have demonstrated adequate reliability and validity in prior Iranian studies, ensuring the appropriateness of their use in this context.The collected data were analyzed using mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures in SPSS version 23. This statistical approach allowed for examination of within-group changes over time as well as between-group differences, providing a comprehensive understanding of the intervention’s effectiveness. The significance level was set at 0.05 for all statistical tests. Effect sizes were also calculated to estimate the magnitude of ACT’s impact on rumination and cognitive confusion, enhancing the interpretability and practical relevance of the findings.This methodological design, combining a randomized control framework, standardized measurement tools, and repeated assessments, aimed to rigorously evaluate the causal effects of ACT while accounting for temporal changes in psychological outcomes.ResultsThe findings indicated that Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) had a significant effect on reducing rumination and cognitive confusion in injured athletes. Mixed-design ANOVA showed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in rumination (F = 7.973, η² = 0.296, p < 0.001), with the experimental group exhibiting a substantial decrease in rumination after the intervention.Similarly, the analysis for cognitive confusion revealed a significant effect of ACT; the experimental group showed a significant reduction compared to the control group (F = 46.278, η² = 0.709, p < 0.001). This reduction was maintained during the follow-up period, indicating the persistence of the intervention effects shortly after the completion of the therapy sessions.Overall, the findings emphasize that ACT can be an effective intervention for reducing rumination and cognitive confusion in injured athletes, with its effects remaining stable at least two weeks after the intervention.ConclusionIn summary, this study demonstrated that Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) effectively reduces rumination and cognitive confusion in injured athletes. The structured eight-week ACT intervention produced significant improvements in participants’ psychological and cognitive outcomes, and these effects were maintained during the follow-up period, indicating short-term stability of the intervention effects. Considering the importance of mental health and cognitive functioning in injured athletes, and the limitations of pharmacological interventions, ACT-based psychotherapy provides a practical and accessible approach to support psychological and cognitive well-being in this population. Implementing these programs in sports centers, psychological clinics, or even individually can complement existing support methods. Future research should explore the underlying mechanisms of ACT, optimize session duration and frequency, and evaluate the long-term effects on other cognitive functions and daily performance of athletes.Ethical ConsiderationsCompliance with ethical guidelinesThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz with the ethical code IR.SCU.REC.1403.122.FundingThere is no funding support. Authors’ ContributionThe first author was responsible for implementing the study procedures, data collection, data analysis and interpretation, and manuscript writing. The second author contributed to study design, data analysis and interpretation, as well as revisions and approval of the final version. The third author was responsible for revisions and approval of the final version. The fourth author also contributed to revisions and approval of the final versionConflict of InterestAuthors declared no conflict of interest.AcknowledgmentsWe are grateful to all the athletes who participated in this study.

Employees play a crucial role in the progress and development of any society. Numerous studies have explored various methods to enhance cognitive and behavioral factors among employees, with the goal of organizational productivity and overall quality. In line with such efforts, the present study investigated the effect of cognitive hypnotherapy on mental toughness and cognitive empowerment among the employees of Kimia Petrochemical Company. This quasi-experimental research employed a pretest-posttest-follow-up design with experimental and control groups. The statistical population consisted of all male employees of Kimia Petrochemical Company in Bandar Mahshahr, aged 35 to 50 years, holding academic degrees ranging from a bachelor's to doctorate levels. Two standardized questionnaires measuring Mental toughness and cognitive empowerment were used for data collection. A total of 30 participants were randomly selected and assigned to the experimental or control group (15 in each group). The experimental group received individual cognitive hypnotherapy interventions based on Elman's (2008) therapeutic protocol, delivered in ten one-hour sessions twice a week. One month after the posttest, both groups completed the questionnaires again during a follow-up phase to assess the durability of treatment effects. Repeated measures ANOVA, conducted using SPSS version 24, revealed significant differences between the two groups in terms of mental toughness and cognitive empowerment scores (P < 0.05). Based on these findings, cognitive hypnotherapy appears to have a positive impact on both mental toughness and cognitive empowerment in employees, suggesting its potential as an effective approach to enhancing psychological and cognitive dimensions in occupational settings. Introduction Human resources are considered the most valuable asset of any organization (Farajzadeh & Keyvanlou, 2020). Employees, by applying their knowledge and skills, can make significant contributions to the growth and excellence of society (Singh & Sarkar, 2019). Cognitive empowerment is a skill that enables individuals to achieve the power of change (Hsieh, 2022). In another definition, cognitive empowerment can be regarded as a psychological state characterized mainly by a sense of control and mastery, intrinsic purposefulness, and competence (Juyumaya, 2022). Another important concept in organizational work that can significantly influence employees’ productivity and performance is mental toughness. Mental toughness acts as a defensive mechanism in response to stressors and allows individuals to actively demonstrate optimal decision-making and performance in various situations (Tian et al., 2022). On the other hand, modern approaches rooted in cognitive psychotherapy, such as cognitive hypnotherapy, have great potential to enhance these characteristics. Most psychological disorders can be regarded as a negative form of self-hypnosis. Individuals often accept their negative, critical thoughts unconsciously and without resistance (Du et al., 2021) Hypnotherapy consists of several essential techniques, including relaxation, guided imagery, systematic desensitization, cognitive restructuring, and the training of hypnotic skills (Du et al., 2021). One type of hypnotherapy, known as cognitive hypnotherapy, is a combination of concepts and techniques from hypnotherapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy, developed by Alladin (Holler et al., 2022). Method This study employed a quasi-experimental design with two groups (experimental and control), using a pretest-posttest format with follow-up. The statistical population included all employees of Kimia Petrochemical Company in Mahshahr, aged between 35 and 50 years, with educational levels ranging from bachelor’s to doctorate degrees. A total of 30 participants were selected through convenience sampling and randomly assigned to two groups of 15 (experimental and control). The cognitive hypnotherapy intervention was based on Alladin’s (2008) treatment protocol and was conducted individually for the experimental group over 10 one-hour sessions, twice a week. The follow-up stage was carried out one month after the posttest. Data analysis was performed using repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) in SPSS version 24. Instruments a) Standard Cognitive Empowerment Questionnaire This questionnaire consists of 15 items designed to assess five dimensions of cognitive empowerment: autonomy, influence, meaningfulness, trust, and competence. b) MTQ-48 Mental Toughness Questionnaire The MTQ-48 includes 48 items and measures six subscales: challenge, commitment, emotional control, life control, self-confidence in abilities, and interpersonal confidence. Results To analyze the research results, data homogeneity and normality were first examined and confirmed. The results indicated that the calculated F-value for the pretest, posttest, and follow-up stages was significant at the 0.001 level. Specifically, the interaction of group and time for both Mental toughness and cognitive empowerment was significant (p < 0.001). Further analyses of the subscales of the research variables were performed separately using repeated measures ANOVA. Table 1. Repeated ANOVA of the Effect of Cognitive Hypnotherapy Intervention on Mental Toughness and Its Components Variable Source SS DF MS F Sig Effect size Challenge Time 43/622 2 21/811 45/425 0/001 0/319 Time*group 37/489 2 18/744 39/038 0/001 0/282 Commitment Time 40/689 2 20/344 47/035 0/001 0/277 Time*group 34/420 2 16/211 37/479 0/001 0/372 Emotional control Time 23/376 1/138 18/012 6/655 0/015 0/192 Time*group 18/956 1/318 14/385 5/310 0/019 0/159 Interpersonal confidence Time 83/400 2 41/700 59/911 0/001 0/381 Time*group 69/622 2 34/481 50/014 0/001 0/441 Life control Time Time*group 38/489 1/409 27/320 39/113 0/001 0/203 29/956 1/409 21/263 30/403 0/001 0/321 Mental Toughness Time Time*group 434/689 1/405 309/307 66/892 0/001 0/405 417/356 1/405 296/983 64/224 0/001 0/396 Self-confidence in abilities Time 43/800 1/242 35/244 23/686 0/001 0/458 Time*group 37/756 1/243 30/381 20/417 0/001 0/424 The findings demonstrated that cognitive hypnotherapy significantly improved emotional control, life control, commitment, self-confidence in abilities, and interpersonal confidence. The treatment effects were maintained during follow-up. Although a significant improvement in the “challenge” component was observed in the posttest, this effect decreased in the follow-up stage. Table 2. Repeated ANOVA of the Effect of Cognitive Hypnotherapy Intervention on Cognitive Empowerment and Its Components Variable Source SS DF MS F Sig Effect size Autonomy Time Time*group 25/356 2 12/678 52/374 0/001 0/242 20/422 2 10/211 42/148 0/001 0/301 Cognitive Empowerment Time Time*group 194/689 1/262 154/313 120/841 0/001 0//312 174/200 1/262 138/073 108/124 0/001 0/293 Competence Time 36/956 2 18/478 39/329 0/001 0/203 Time*group 31/267 2 15/632 33/106 0/001 0/142 Influence Time 18/422 2 9/211 38/178 0/001 0/121 Time*group 14/067 2 7/033 29/951 0/001 0/110 Meaningfulness Time 28/022 2 14/011 54/546 0/001 0/360 Time*group 25/622 2 12/811 49/975 0/001 0/241 Trust Time 25/800 2 12/900 26/690 0/001 0/248 Time*group 25/800 2 12/900 26/690 0/001 0/188 The findings indicated that all components of cognitive empowerment showed significant improvement in the posttest, and these effects remained significant in the follow-up stage. Discussion and Conclusion The findings indicated that cognitive hypnotherapy was effective in enhancing employees’ psychological hardiness and cognitive empowerment. Cognitive hypnotherapy is based on the principle that many psychological disorders, behavioral dysfunctions, and even physical problems stem from negative forms of self-hypnosis. Negative thoughts and the emotions resulting from them are often accepted by individuals unconsciously and without critique. Hypnotherapy can reduce such negative self-talk and cognitions and even replace them with positive cognitions (Ekanayake et al., 2022). Adopting this approach may lead to reduced anxiety, increased self-confidence, and improved mood among employees.

The study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of parental efficacy training on the academic engagement and performance of Afghan immigrant students with specific learning disorders living in Isfahan. The research method was quasi-experimental, utilizing a pre-test-post-test design with a control group. For this purpose, 30 students with specific learning disorders and their parents in Isfahan, studying in elementary school during the 2023-2024 academic year, were selected using a purposive method based on the inclusion criteria. They were randomly assigned to two groups: an experimental group (15 participants) and a control group (15 participants). The instruments used included the Academic Engagement and Academic Performance Scale, and interventions related to parental efficacy training following Gordon's (2000) approach were implemented for the experimental group over two months in eight 90-minute sessions. A post-test was administered upon completion of the training program. Data were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Results indicated a significant difference (p<0.01) between the experimental and control groups in the variables of academic engagement and academic performance in the post-test phase. This suggests that parental efficacy training effectively improves students' academic engagement and academic performance supporting its inclusion in educational programs. The training program is recommended for therapists, educators, psychologists, and counselors.IntroductionA specific learning disorder is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent difficulties in one of the three key areas of learning skills: reading, writing, and mathematics, which are essential for the learning process (Scaria et al., 2023). This disorder affects a significant percentage of school-aged children, with estimates suggesting that 5 to 15 percent of children in different languages and cultures have a specific learning disorder (Chieffo et al., 2023). One influencing factor that leads to educational progress for students with learning disorders is "academic engagement," which is considered an important harbinger of learning (Zyngier, 2008). Students with high levels of engagement tend to show great perseverance and effort in all areas, especially in academics (Nejatifar et al., 2023).Academic performance is another variable examined in children with learning disorders, serving as a fundamental criterion for evaluating students' educational achievements (Werang et al., 2024). Therefore, academic performance has always been important for teachers, students, parents, and educational researchers (Palardy et al., 2015). Research evidence suggests that academic engagement and performance are influenced by various factors, including parental involvement (Kushwaha & Ahmad, 2024). Therefore, it appears that parental efficacy training helps improve the academic performance of students. However, no research has been conducted in Iran to examine the impact of parental efficacy training on Afghan immigrant students with specific learning disorders. Based on this, the present research question is whether parental efficacy training affects the academic engagement and performance of Afghan immigrant students with specific learning disorders residing in Isfahan.MethodThis research used a quasi-experimental method with a pre-test-post-test design and a control group. The statistical population included all Afghan immigrant students with specific learning disorders in Isfahan and their parents during the 2023-2024 academic year. Schools specifically for these students were identified for sampling. Using a diagnostic checklist (2022), Raven's Progressive Matrices test (1981), and clinical interviews, 30 students from third, fifth, and sixth grades were purposefully selected and randomly assigned to two groups: experimental and control (15 participants each). The Academic Engagement Scale and descriptive report cards were used to assess academic performance in both the pre-test and post-test phases. Parental efficacy training, based on Gordon's (2000) approach, was conducted over two months in eight 90-minute sessions for the experimental group. The data were analyzed using statistical indicators such as percentage, mean, standard deviation, and the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Results The following table shows the mean scores and standard deviations of the experimental and control groups in the pre-test and post-test phases for the variables of academic engagement and academic performance. In the following sections, the mean scores and standard deviations of the experimental and control groups in the pre-test and post-test phases for the variables of academic engagement and academic performance are presented.Table: The mean standard deviation of the experimental and control groupsScales ExperimentalControl MeanStd. DevMeanStd. DevAcademic EngagementPre-test32.466.3433.606.98Post-test47.805.6436.205.77Academic PerformancePre-test6.001.885.601.72Post-test10.801.145.801.47 The results of Table 1 indicated that the mean scores of academic engagement and performance in the experimental group increased in the post-test compared to the pre-test. This difference was significant both when compared to the pre-test and when compared to the control group. This means that the parental efficacy training successfully enhanced the students' academic engagement and performance in the post-test phase.DiscussionAs observed, the results of this study showed that parental efficacy training increased academic engagement scores in the post-test phase and that there was a significant difference between the groups in all dimensions of academic engagement (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive). Additionally, the results for the academic performance variable showed that the mean academic performance scores of the experimental group increased in the post-test compared to the pre-test, and this difference was significant in comparison with the pre-test and the control group.Therefore, it appears that parental efficacy training, by altering learning methods between parents and children, correcting incorrect parental behaviors, teaching proper parenting techniques, problem-solving, increasing flexibility and acceptance, empathetic listening, and using more encouraging feedback, has led to an increase in academic engagement and improvement in the academic performance of the students.Although the research was conducted exclusively in special schools for immigrants in Isfahan, which limits the generalizability of the results, these findings can be useful for educators and education policymakers, especially the staff and teachers in special schools for immigrants, to make macro-educational decisions and plans.

AbstractThis study aimed to investigate the contribution of Cognitive, Emotional, and Spiritual intelligence (IQ, EQ, and SQ respectively) in explaining Problem-solving styles. To do this, 544 Iranian adults (14-80 years; 261 females and 283 males) participated in this study and were asked to answer the Problem-solving Questionnaire, Raven’s Progressive Matrices IQ Test, Bradbury-Greaves’ Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, and the Spiritual Intelligence Questionnaire. Considering that the growth and formation of spiritual intelligence start in adolescence and will accompany a person until the end of his life, the sample of this research was selected from adolescence to adulthood. For data analysis, simultaneous multivariate regression was used, and the results showed that EQ (Emotional intelligence) and SQ (Spiritual intelligence ) were able to significantly predict the adaptive Problem-solving style (including creative Problem solving, confidence, and approach), IQ, EQ, and SQ were able to predict substantially the non-adaptive Problem-solving style (including helplessness, control, and avoidance) each person seems to be more successful in solving some problems due to the extent to which he/she uses different intelligence.

The present study applied a causal-comparative research method with the aim of comparing conflict resolution tactics and stress coping strategies utilized by married working women and housewives. The statistical population comprised all married housewives and working women (ages 20 to 65, with a minimum of pre-high school education level, and no children or up to 6 children) in the city of Isfahan, Iran during 2023–2024. The sample was made up of 300 participants, comprising 150 married working women and 150 housewives, which were selected through convenience sampling method. The instruments used for gathering data included the Coping Responses Inventory (CRI) and the Conflict Resolution Strategies Questionnaire (CTS). The results performing MANOVA showed a significant difference between the two groups of married working women and housewives in all components of conflict resolution tactics (p<0.01). Working women had a moderately higher mean in negotiation-aggression and negotiation-victim compared to housewives (p<0.01). Conversely, housewives reported significantly higher mean scores than working women in several domains, including psychological aggression (as aggressors), psychological violence (as victims), physical aggression (as aggressors), and physical assault (as victims) directed toward working women (p<0.01). The findings suggested that support efforts are essential to decrease violence and enhance women's quality of life safety within the community.

Work-related behavior patterns toward stressor experiences reflect the staff's attitude toward their professional requirements. The work-related behavior experience patterns questionnaire (AVEM) has been developed to determine the work-related patterns of people in the face of job stress. The present study examined the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the AVEM in pre-service early childhood teachers- student teachers who are enrolled in a teacher education program and working toward teacher certification (n=429, 59.67% female). The confirmatory factor analysis results showed an 11-factor structure resembling the original factor structure in the Persian language. Additionally, results showed that the Persian version of the AVEM demonstrated high internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Overall, the findings support the validity and reliability of the Persian version of the AVEM, which can be used to assess work-related behavior and experience patterns. The AVEM can be used during pre-service teachers' education to evaluate the extent to which they report work behaviors associated with occupational stress and dissatisfaction. Pre-service early childhood teachers who tend to feel overwhelmed and helpless in stressful work situations should be identified early so that they can be offered support.

Supported employment is a successful approach in the vocational rehabilitation of adults with intellectual disabilities, and is highly dependent on job coaching. Therefore, the current study was conducted to identify job coaching skills affecting supported employment in Adults with intellectual disability. Articles and dissertations were checked in ScienceDirect, Sagepub, Eric, Wiley, Springer, Pubmed, ProQuest, Noormags, Sid, Magiran, and Irandoc in the period 2005 to 2023; using a combination of expressions including “supported employment”, and “job coaching” and “intellectual disability” were reviewed. Hence, according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the results of 43 eligible studies were extracted and analyzed by the Attride-Storling method. Consequently,85 basic themes, 13 organizing themes, and 5 global themes were identified and the five-faceted model of job coaching model was designed. In other words, the factors affecting supported employment can be summarized as emotional skills, general skills, specialized skills, knowledge of culture and community, and business skills. The results of this study showed that the use of the supported employment approach can be effective when the aspects of job coaching are considered to reduce the unemployment of people with intellectual disabilities and help their economy.