Fabaceae (legumes) constitutes one of the most ecologically significant angiosperm families, occupying nearly all major biomes worldwide. Fossils belonging to this family have been reported from various Paleogene–Neogene successions of the Indian subcontinent. However, the Paleogene fossil record of legumes in India, is relatively sparse compared to the more abundantly documented from the Miocene. Here, we describe, the three fossil pods Leguminocarpum elongatum Chandra, Shukla et Shukla sp. nov., Leguminocarpum falcatum Chandra, Shukla et Shukla sp. nov. Leguminocarpum semilunatum Chandra, Shukla et Shukla sp. nov. from the late Paleocene-early Eocene sediments of the western India, showing resemblance with the extant legume taxa. This report adds a new data to the sparse Paleogene legume record from India. Earlier palaeobotanical evidence from the Gurha mine indicate the warm, and humid conditions with pronounced wet–dry seasonality, suggestive of a monsoon-like climatic regime. Such environmental conditions might have offered a favorable ecological condition for the diversification of legume lineages in the Indian region during the early Paleogene.
The Bayan Gobi Formation is an important Early Cretaceous dinosaur fossil-bearing horizon, although the number of known dinosaur taxa remains relatively limited. Here, a new dinosaur material, primarily comprising proximal caudal vertebrae, is reported from the Bayan Gobi Formation. The specimen marks the first published dinosaur record from the Bayan Gobi Formation in the western Yin'gen-Ejinaqi Basin, further extending the geographical range of dinosaur fossils in this horizon. The specimen was discovered at a depth of 473.2m in a drill core and displays several features indicative of its ornithischian affinity: slender, distally tapering transverse processes near the neurocentral suture, positioned well below the level of the zygapophyses, and slender ossified tendons on the dorsal side of the neural arch. The proportions among the caudal vertebral elements closely resemble those of Psittacosaurus, and principal component analysis based on geometric morphometrics supports this similarity. However, given the limited material available, assignment to a specific genus or species remains uncertain. Notably, the dorsolateral surface of the 2nd to 4th caudal centra shows regularly arranged nutrient foramina, a feature not previously reported in other ornithischians, thereby providing new morphological data for dinosaurs from the Bayan Gobi Formation. However, since the new specimen may represent an immature individual and the available material is limited, it is difficult to determine whether this feature reflects interspecific, interindividual, or ontogenetic variation.
The Late Cretaceous–Early Paleogene transition in the Anambra Basin, southeastern Nigeria, records a complete cycle of marine regression and transgression driven by the combined influence of global eustatic sea-level fluctuations and regional tectonics. This study integrates palynological and foraminiferal analyses of ditch-cutting samples from two exploration wells (Alpha-1 and Beta-1) to reconstruct the palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic evolution across this critical interval. Biostratigraphic zonation based on the last appearance datums (LADs) of key taxa establishes a robust chronostratigraphic framework spanning the Late Campanian to the Early Paleocene (Danian). The succession is constrained by the occurrence of Globotruncanella havanensis in both wells, while Morozovella velascoensis is recorded exclusively in the Alpha-1 well, together with the palynological marker taxa Ctenolophonidites costatus and Retidiporites miniporatus. Hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis of palynological data delineate three statistically significant assemblages corresponding to continental swamp-forest, transitional coastal plain, and mangrove–coastal swamp environments. The depositional history records a regressive–transgressive cycle from restricted marginal-marine conditions of the Nkporo Group through progradational deltaic systems of the Mamu and Ajali formations to renewed marine transgression represented by the Nsukka Formation and Imo Shale. Palynological climate proxies indicate three major phases: (i) warm but seasonally dry conditions during the Late Campanian–Maastrichtian; (ii) a transitional K–Pg interval marked by significant floral turnover; and (iii) peak warmth and humidity during the Early Paleocene, coinciding with maximum marine flooding. This integrated and quantitatively supported study refines the biostratigraphic framework of the Anambra Basin, provides new insights into tropical vegetation and climate dynamics across the K–Pg transition, and strengthens regional stratigraphic correlations and palaeoenvironmental interpretation for hydrocarbon exploration in West African marginal basins.
Climate change is a serious challenge to the sustainability of bioresources due to increased pressure on their survival. A group of already threatened lesser-known trees (Achar, Aonla, Arjun, Bija, Harra, Katira, Kullu, Maidalakdi, Patala, Pilu, Salai, Shyonak, and Varuna), possessing socioeconomic value and associated with the health of indigenous communities, are continuously used in the tropical forests of central India. Yet there is a lack of information on the impact of climate change on this valuable group of trees. Therefore, we examined the habitat suitability, assessed the growing stock and evaluated future dynamics. MaxEnt habitat suitability modelling was adopted to project potential distribution and population estimation in current and future scenarios. Global Circulation Models (HadGEM3-GC3.1-LL, MIROC6 and GISS-E2–1-G) were also used to assess the dynamics of stable and unstable habitats under moderate (SSP245) and extreme (SSP585) emission conditions. Model evaluators showed very good prediction strength (AUC: 0.790 – 0.957 and CBI: 0.469 – 0.993) except a weak Varuna. Vital variables controlling the niche were Mean diurnal range of temperature, Precipitation seasonality and Isothermality. Future projections of habitat showed net loss of 0.04–4.6% in some species and net gain of 0.7–16.8% in others with exceptions. There was a vectoral and spatial shift in suitable areas in the future. Corresponding to suitable habitat changes the estimated growing stock also decreased and increased. The data generated in the study could be useful in creating long-term multispecies conservation reserves and increasing growing stock. Adoption of agroforestry practices may aid in sustainability achievement.
Karoo Palaeozoic sediments from the Maniamba basin, Mozambique were analysed by integrating the molecular composition of biomarkers, inorganic chemistry, and palynofacies proxies to further understand their origin. Unimodal distribution is revealed through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for n-alkanes coupled with the abundance of compounds of medium and high molecular weight. The dominance of stigmastane over cholestane and ergostane, Terrigenous Aqueous Ratio (TAR>1), and high concentration of C19 and C20 tricyclic terpenes are indicative of terrestrial organic matter dominance. The Carbon Preference Index, the Odd over Even Preference for the distribution of n-alkanes, the low values for the ratio 18α(H)- trisneohopane over 17α(H)-trisnorhopane, the C29 ααα S/(S+R) isomerization ratios in C29 steranes, C30 βα/(βα+αβ), C31 αβ S/(S+R) and C32αβ S/(S+R) isomerization ratios suggest organic matter (OM) with low thermal evolution. These data are supported by Spore Color Index and vitrinite reflectance. The nature of the OM is supported by isoprenoids Pristane/Phytane ratios, palynofacies, and high contribution derived from an ecosystem dominated by ancient Glossopterid and conifer flora. Finally, data from studied proxies indicate weak to strong palaeoweathering, highly proximal, marginal oxic-anoxic Basin characterized by kerogens associated with weakly and strongly oxidized swamps suggesting an existing potential for gas. Lastly, analyzed material strengthen the occurrence of continentalization process across Permian deposits of Gondwana.
Brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis is a popular sportfish native to North America and introduced worldwide, as well as an indicator of environmental quality. We review published studies and synthesize a view of how geomorphological, climatological, and ecological factors gave rise to the current distribution of brook trout and the geographic patterning of its population genetic diversity. Phylogenetic studies show that the center of diversity for charrs – i.e., members of Genus Salvelinus – is east Asia and northwestern North America and that divergence of most Salvelinus species occurred during the Miocene Epoch. Members of the Salvelinus lineage dispersed throughout northern Canada and eastern North America, the contemporary natural distribution of brook trout, perhaps with the opening of the Bering Strait at ~5.3 mya near the end of the Miocene Epoch or perhaps earlier through the Paleo-Bell River system. The contemporary population genetic structure of brook trout was patterned by retreat to refugia from Pleistocene glaciation, followed by Holocene recolonization of eastern North America. That is, contemporary populations of brook trout represent the descendants of fish from Acadian, Mid-Atlantic, or Mississippian refugia and from recent mixing upon secondary contact. Population genetic variation mostly conforms to watershed boundaries, a finding that informs fisheries and conservation management strategies. A growing body of research provides insights into local adaption of brook trout populations. The future viability of many populatons of brook trout will depend upon implementation of well-considered, conservation-oriented management actions.
From their nineteenth-century discovery, Neanderthals have been burdened with images of brutishness and failure—hairy, stooped figures constructed less from evidence than from Victorian prejudice, colonial ideology, and the authority of early paleoanthropology. These representations infiltrated museums, politics, and even scientific theory, sustaining the notion of Neanderthals as evolutionary dead ends. Recent advances in paleogenomics, archaeology, and paleoecology have overturned these narratives. Neanderthals are now recognised as cognitively sophisticated hominins who engaged in symbolic practices, including the use of pigments, ornaments, engravings, and cave art; who mastered fire and adhesives; who employed fibres, feathers, and shells; who cared for the sick and buried their dead; and who adapted with remarkable flexibility to landscapes ranging from Mediterranean woodlands to periglacial steppes over an exceptionally long timespan. Yet while science now acknowledges this iconographic dissonance, it remains necessary to consider how entrenched academic hierarchies, unequal funding systems, and a research culture in which the value of discoveries is often influenced as much by bibliometric performance as by novelty, disparity, or complexity, may still shape interpretations in other domains—such as the chronology of Neanderthal extinction. Paleoart is analysed here as a decisive mediator between data, culture, and consensus, and emphasis is placed on the emergence of Neanderthals as creators of distinctive aesthetic niches, as ecological actors, and as reminders that every species constitutes a unique evolutionary experiment destined for extinction. Their legacy dismantles myths of human exceptionalism and compels reflection, through the lens of deep time, on the urgent challenges of biodiversity loss and the fragile conditions of coexistence.
Eocene precipitation patterns of eastern Eurasia are studied in focus on potential imprints of monsoonal circulation. Based on the application of the Coexistence Approach (CA) on 239 palaeofloras, three precipitation variables are reconstructed and six derived monsoon indices are tested for the early, middle and late Eocene. Under the Eocene greenhouse and diverging palaeogeography, atmospheric circulation and precipitation patterns fundamentally differed from modern. Our reconstruction reveals mainly zonal patterns and significantly higher-than-present precipitation at high and mid-latitudes, with means being highest in the early Eocene. The monsoon indices calculated from CA data yield ambiguous evidences for monsoon circulation during the Eocene. For East Asia, most data suggest a weak or absent summer monsoon, with the medians of the Eocene index values being at the lower ends or below typical modern values for monsoonal conditions. Moreover, they consistently indicate the absence of a winter monsoon, probably related to a weak or absent Siberian High throughout the Eocene. For sites located on the Indian Plate, the indices considered here yield contradictory results. The monsoon indices have their strengths and flaws and hence complemental application of various different indices is proven useful.
Temperate glaciers have been considered unreliable palaeoclimate archives due to the possible snow melting and consequent loss of physical and chemical signals of the ice. The Adamello Glacier is located on the southern slopes of the European Alps (Italy), at an altitude included between 2560 and 3420 m a.s.l. In 2021, a 224 m long ice core was drilled in the framework of ClimADA project. In this glacier, the ice has an accumulation rate of ca 0.9 m a−1; a sampling resolution of 10 cm was chosen, thus ensuring palaeoclimate reconstructions at subannual scale. Preliminary analyses show that a seasonal pattern is preserved: a spring-summer layer rich in particles constitutes up to 10 % of the annual ice thickness while 90 % is formed by autumn-winter clean ice. Given the good preservation of insoluble particles, a multiproxy approach based on the simultaneous counting of eight particle types was chosen. Even if the particle-rich layers are rarely visible to the naked eye from a depth of 41 m downward, the seasonal signal is well preserved also in the deeper part of the core. This preliminary investigation demonstrates that insoluble particles reached the Adamello Glacier from at least two diverse sources: the slopes of the Adamello Massif, and a long-distance source that is identified as the Sahara Desert. Temperate glaciers, therefore, can be valuable archives especially for insoluble particles; the high deposition rate of snow allows detailed paleoenvironment reconstructions. Though time consuming, the contemporaneous counting of many proxies greatly enhances the available information.
The Early Pliocene paleobathymetry and paleoceanographic conditions of the offshore southeastern Niger Delta were investigated from the agglutinated foraminiferal assemblages recovered from the DPH-1A well. 60 ditch cutting samples obtained from the well section were subjected to the kerosene method of foraminiferal sample processing. Samples from the basal interval (2940 – 3100 m) yielded exclusively calcareous forms, while the overlying section consist entirely of agglutinated assemblages. The agglutinated taxa were categorized into 6 morphotypes with their supposed life habit and designated M1 (tubular, suspension feeding, erect epifaunal), M2a (globular, deposit feeding, shallow infaunal), M2b (rounded trochospiral, surficial epifaunal, active deposit feeding), M3a (flattened planispiral, surficial epifaunal, active deposit feeding), M4a (rounded planispiral, surficial epifaunal / shallow infaunal, active deposit feeding) and M4b (elongate tapered, deep infaunal, active deposit feeding). The section was constrained to the N17 late Miocene – N18 early Pliocene biochron based on important foraminiferal datums; first appearance datums (FADs) Neogloboquadrina dutertrei, Globigerinoides obliquus extremus, Globorotalia pseudopima, Globorotalia pseudomiocenica and last appearance datum (LAD) Cyclammina cf. minima. Agglutinated foraminiferal morphotype and lithologic analyses indicate outer neritic to lower bathyal (deep water) paleobathymetric setting, high organic matter productivity, low oxygen bottom water and muddy sediment substrate typical of oxygen minimum zones. Exclusive agglutinated assemblages of the early Pliocene samples point to intense carbonate dissolution which might have been caused by bottom water acidification triggered by increased CO2 generation from the bacterial decomposition of sediment organic matter.
Tree-growth rings act as high-resolution climate proxies because wood anatomy is directly related to water uptake and tree growth. 190 silicified wood samples representing three taxa from the main Karoo Basin of South Africa were analysed. These samples (Agathoxylon africanum, Agathoxylon karooensis and Prototaxoxylon africanum) are from two time zones, namely the late middle Permian (Capitanian) beds of the lower Beaufort Group, and the late Permian (Wuchiapingian-Changhsingian) beds of the upper Beaufort Group. The former lithostratigraphy is equivalent to the Tapinocephalus vertebrate Assemblage Zone while the latter is equivalent to the Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone. Although Karoo fossil woods are abundant, many of the growth rings exhibit shear zones or bands of crushed cells where the cells are too distorted to enable accurate measurement. The CSDM curves and average annual ring width from the undistorted growth rings of the lower Beaufort woods reflect a deciduous tree growth habit and average ring width of 3.57 mm, while the undistorted rings of the upper Beaufort woods reflect a deciduous tree growth habit and average ring width of 3.29 mm. Some within-season fluctuations are evident but there is very little difference between the two time periods, with possible slower growth for the upper Beaufort. The low species diversity and stable climate inferred from the woods do not support the proposed climate change interpreted from the faunal extinctions at the end-Guadalupian (Capitanian), however future studies will have to increase the number of measurable growth ring sequences to investigate possible climate and wood diversity correlations with the end-Guadalupian.
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region is an important region for dinosaur fossil discoveries in southern China, but its Jurassic dinosaur record remains relatively sparse. In 2021, dinosaur tracks were first discovered in Nanmushan Village, Dongxing City, which is currently the southernmost known dinosaur fossil record in China. The Nanmushan track site preserved at least seven theropod tracks. The morphotype A is tentatively assigned to cf. Chongqingpus, which belongs to the Eubrontes morphotype tracks. Morphotype B is more poorly preserved, but indicates the presence of larger theropods in the region. This study also reviews the stratigraphic sequences of the Jurassic-Cretaceous deposits in Guangxi, identifying 14 tetrapod fossil sites from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous. Regional comparison of the dinosaur assemblages reveals a high degree of similarity between the Middle-Upper Jurassic dinosaur fauna of Guangxi and that of the Sichuan Basin. The early Cretaceous faunal assemblage of the Xinlong Formation is very similar to that of northeastern Thailand, suggesting the possible existence of a distinct “southern” zoogeographical region in southern China and Southeast Asia. This research provides new evidence for the reconstruction of the Mesozoic dinosaur diversity and paleoecological patterns in the Guangxi region.
The Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests (SDTF) form a special biome that extends in disjunct fragments from northwestern Mexico to northern Argentina and southwestern Brazil. In South America, the largest fragments were characterized as distribution nuclei: Caatinga, Misiones, Subandean Piedmont nucleus and Chiquitanía. Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan is a native forest species, due its distribution along the SDTF it’s the most paradigmatic and ecologically specialized species. This work aims to date the disjunct distribution of A. colubrina and to determine the most probable hypothesis that explains it’s genetic and geographic distribution pattern. Haplotypes were identified by analyzing two non-coding regions of chloroplast DNA and the relationship among them were represented in a MJ network. Divergence time estimates were calibrated by the Fossilized Birth-Death model incorporating external paleobotanical information. Different scenarios were proposed to test the order and time of divergence using the Approximate Bayesian Computation method. Nine haplotypes were identified, dating the divergence between the Misiones and Subandean Piedmont nuclei to the late Oligocene, while the divergence within each nucleus was dated to the Miocene. The most probable phylogeographic hypothesis indicates a pre-Pleistocene divergence between the haplotypes of the Misiones and Subandean Piedmont nuclei and a later divergence of a haplotype lineage from the Subandean Piedmont nucleus and Paraná. The divergence between chloroplastic haplotypes of A. colubrina occurred long before the Pleistocene, suggesting that A. colubrina was already widespread and fragmented during the Pleistocene in South America before the LGM and also occurred in northern Argentina before the Pleistocene.
The Ethiopian Bush-crow is one of the endemic and endangered species of birds, with restricted distribution, being confined to the flat savanna areas of Borana, Ethiopia. This species which has an area of occupancy defined by distinct climate pocket is extremely threatened by habitat loss and incompatibility. Available published reports and manuscripts were reviewed to examine and document: i) The likely effects of the recurrent and severe droughts on the potential threats of Bush-crow; and ii) Realization of earlier proposed conservation actions in the context of the prevailing situations in its habitat. Based on this review, it is concluded that prevalence of 2021, 2022 and early 2023 severe drought is likely to cause unpredictable consequences for the survival of the species and resulted in disruption of the ecological associations between the people, livestock and the Bush-crow. Thus, the ecological predictions made earlier and the previously proposed conservation actions are assumed to be arguable and there is a logical concern that the species in question will be extinct much earlier than predicted. It is therefore recommended that there is a need to undertake further assessment of the real ecological and socio-economic situations on the ground and urgently develop species-specific action plan at national level in order to address the ever-increasing Bush-crow’s conservation challenges.
This study firstly presented that the Carboniferous-Permian sequences along the western margin of the Sibumasu Block in Myanmar are characterised by Mississippian Cimmerian-type fauna, Kungurian admixtures of both Cathaysian and Gondwanan taxa, Cathaysian-affinity flora, and Guadalupian warm-water organisms. These biotas represent different paleolatitude settings within the Cimmerian continents and distinct drifting histories. The Asselian to Sakmarian glaciomarine deposits in the lower part of the Mergui Group contain typical Gondwana-type cold-water faunas found in other parts of the Sibumasu, but these have not yet been observed in the Shan Scarp zone of Myanmar. Due to the absence of Pennsylvanian strata, the plant fossil-bearing Mwedaw Beds overlie the Tournaisian-Visean Loikaw Beds and are underlain by the Thitispin Formation in the Shan Plateau zone. The Permian sequences are most clearly observed in the Shan Scarp zone, which lacks Carboniferous strata.
Dispersal of terrestrial mammals into Wallacea requires the crossing of sea straits. Stegodons, an extinct family of proboscideans, managed to settle on roughly a dozen Wallacean islands during the Pleistocene. Their distribution pattern is, however, not well understood. It results from the interaction of two specific processes, namely respective swimming performances on the one hand, as well as island dwarfing on the other. Reduction of body mass has an impact on swimming performance, because smaller size leads to a slower swimming speed and lower deposits of available energy. In this study we conducted a series of experiments with the agent-based model SEAcross, designed to monitor swimming performances of terrestrial mammals across sea straits by measuring crossing success rates (CSR). We found that the dispersal pattern is in accordance with size-dependent swimming performances, geographic width as well as current speed and direction. Because currents change on a seasonal scale, bottlenecks decelerating or even preventing dispersal are rarely absolute, but should be considered as seasonal phenomena. Our results allow for an in-depth analysis of dispersal routes and success. Dispersal performances cannot, however, explain the lack of a fossil record of stegodons in the eastern part of Wallacea. With very few exceptions, routes should be manageable for terrestrial mammals with the size of a stegodon. Our results illustrate, however, the usefulness and applicability of agent-based models in order to further examine geographic dispersal barriers in conjunction with the dynamics of animal behavior.
Sideroxylon mascatense is a shrub or small tree of the high mountains of western Asia and is sister to S. spinosum L. of NW Africa, the latter being the source plant of the famous Argan Oil. Based on distinctive features of seed morphology, we demonstrate that closely related plants were native in the Neogene of central Europe. The most similar fossils occur in the Neogene of Italy and are assigned to Sideroxylon ruminatiusculum Martinetto, Manchester, R.Barone et Swenson sp. nov. Other European fossil carpological remains, formerly assigned to Sapindoidea globosa (R.Ludw.) Kirchh., agree with Sideroxylon mascatense in the external morphology and anatomy of the ruminate seeds, but are larger. We therefore propose the new combination Sideroxylon globosum (R.Ludw.) Martinetto, Manchester, R.Barone et Swenson comb. nov. In the type locality of Salzhausen (Germany, Miocene) Sideroxylon globosum co-occurs with similar, though smaller and less ruminate seeds, formerly assigned to Sapindoidea Kirchh., but here reclassified as Sideroxylon margaritiferum (R.Ludw.) Martinetto, Manchester, R.Barone et Swenson comb. nov. The European fossil seeds of Sideroxylon were produced by plants that grew under the wet palaeoclimates of the Neogene. The proposed systematic relationship suggests that members of this group adapted to increasing aridity around the Mediterranean and western Asia during the late Cenozoic and persisted there until recent times. The latest known European occurrence is represented by Late Pliocene (ca. 3 Ma) fossils from Central Italy. Despite strong similarities between the fossils and Sideroxylon mascatense, other extant species of the genus, such as the Canary Islands and Madeira species, differ in these seed characters and do not seem to be closely related to the studied European fossils.
Plant fossils at the southern Zealandia Landslip Hill deposit (early Miocene, Gore Lignite Measures) are preserved in a silcrete matrix and reveal unique three-dimensional structures. Here, we present fossil leaf-based paleoclimate and vegetation reconstructions, as well as a comparison of the diversity at the site to modern New Zealand forests. The early Miocene climate at the site is much warmer than modern (mean annual temperature 17.6 ± 2.3 °C versus ∼10 °C today), but with similar annual precipitation rates (96 +67/-39 cm yr−1 versus ∼100 cm yr−1 today). Temperature seasonality is similar to today, whereas the locality experienced stronger precipitation seasonality, likely due to the southward migration of the moisture-laden westerly wind belt during early Miocene summers. The reconstructed vegetation at Landslip Hill does not tend towards resource retention strategies, like modern dense evergreen climax forest that exists under similar temperature and precipitation combinations in Zealandia today. Instead, the vegetation includes elements of open vegetation, with nearest living relatives of taxa identified at the site being notable post-disturbance taxa, such as Gleicheniaceae and Casuarinaceae. This indicates that the vegetation at Landslip Hill may have been periodically disturbed, potentially by floods, fire or both. Flood disturbance aligns well with the coarse sandstone facies of the deposit, and the lack of planar bedding in which the fossils are found. However, fire disturbance aligns well with the summer-dry conditions at the site. Overall dicot leaf diversity at Landslip Hill is similar to that of modern New Zealand forests, even those at the same depositional latitude (∼45–46°S); however, unlike modern New Zealand forests, there is no clear dominance of a single taxon.
Vultures are an imperiled yet insufficiently studied scavenger guild. Indian Vulture (IV) and White-rumped (WRV) Vulture -- two critically endangered vultures -- have declining global population trends. Habitat, a proxy of population, is known to be impacted by climate change. This study is aimed at assessing changes in future(s) habitats from the present and identifying responsible factors influencing changes using MaxEnt SDM. Twenty-eight models/predictions were made and their robustness was evaluated using AUC (0.90–0.97), TSS (0.4–0.5) and CBI (0.804–0.961). The top three bioclimatic variables for WRV were bio09, bio13 and bio08 but differed in IV (bio15, bio08, bio03). The suitable habitat was found in distinct parts of the study area, forested plains for WRV and cliffs and hills for IV. In the present-day conditions, 16 % (WRV) and 10 % (IV) of the studied area (240930 km2) was found to be suitable which fluctuated up to 5 % in future. Climate change-based population predictions were also not encouraging. Though the models could be further improved by removing limitations, the instant predictions could be taken as reference and used from a management perspective while developing conservation strategies by the concerned agency. In general, decreasing suitable area and declining population in the future warranted serious conservation concern. Landscape level vulture centric planning must be done by maintaining suitable areas as vulture safe zones. Vulnerable areas should undergo habitat improvement by increasing nesting and roosting site and food availability through agroforestry practices.
The Last Interglacial (~129,000–116,000 years ago) provides key insights into temperate European vegetation dynamics before significant anthropogenic impacts. Using LOVE (Local Vegetation Estimates) and REVEALS (Regional Estimates of VEgetation Abundance from Large Sites) models, this study reconstructed vegetation patterns across local (~9km²) and regional (~100km²) scales. Local landscapes presented a heterogeneous mosaic, with averages of 17% open vegetation, 21% closed forests, and 63% light woodlands, reflecting high fine-scale heterogeneity. Importantly, weak local-regional correlations highlight the importance of localised drivers. Longitude and, to a lesser extent, precipitation explained some variation in local vegetation openness, but heterogeneity remained unexplained, emphasising the role of disturbance regimes. Shannon diversity and evenness varied widely, indicating a mix of species-rich and more uniform habitats and reflecting diverse ecological dynamics. Beta diversity showed high spatial turnover, suggesting composition was shaped by localised factors rather than uniform climatic drivers. Frequently represented genera, such as Artemisia, Helianthemum, Erica, Filipendula, and Plantago, indicate diverse open and semi-open habitats, shaped by disturbances and hydrological variability. Weak climatic correlations and dominance of disturbance-adapted taxa suggest active disturbance-shaped vegetation. Large herbivorous mammals (megafauna) likely maintained vegetation openness through grazing and browsing; there is limited evidence for frequent fire activities in this period. These findings challenge the closed-canopy forest paradigm for interglacials, revealing substantial openness and heterogeneity. This scale-explicit evidence of Last Interglacial vegetation complexity offers insights into the biodiversity and ecological functionality of pre-anthropogenic ecosystems, with implications for modern conservation and rewilding, particularly in maintaining diversity through disturbance and megafaunal interactions.
