Over the past several decades, the extent to which microbes enhance plant development and health has become clearer; however, this has not been explored in terms of the aggressiveness and hardiness of weedy plants. In this review, we explore the hypothesis that many features of weeds and invasive plants are related to the activities of plant microbiomes. Microbes contribute to weed growth, fecundity, and fitness. They also play roles in soils, and in plants as endophytes, where they modulate plant development and protect the host from pathogens, insects, animals, and abiotic stresses. In addition, the adaptability and hardiness of weeds partly stem from the effects of endophytes on plant gene expression and genetic diversity. Weed control often involves multiple applications of herbicides or other treatments that can be costly and destructive. Weed and invasive plant control for agriculture and environment goes beyond monetary costs to negative impacts on people, animals and environment. However, with a more complete knowledge of the roles played by microbes, their symbiotic interactions may be altered to diminish aggressive traits less expensively and with fewer non target effects on environmental, human and animal health.
Dollar spot is a foliar blight of turfgrasses caused by Clarireedia species. An existing quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) protocol was shown to quantify the abundance of Clarireedia from both asymptomatic and symptomatic tissues, which makes it a useful tool for monitoring the pathogen in the field. The qPCR assay uses a tiny amount of tissue, so generating an accurate representative sample from a large turfgrass sward is necessary. The main objective of this study was to determine the best sampling method for qPCR analysis for accurate detection and quantification of Clarireedia in creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera) fields. Two dollar spot-susceptible cultivars of creeping bentgrass, 'Crenshaw' (2020) and 'Independence' (2021), were used in the study. Symptomatic and asymptomatic samples were collected each year from 12 replicated 0.91 m & times; 1.52 m plots maintained at a 9.5 mm (bench set) cutting height. Average cycle threshold (Ct) values were determined using the qPCR assay from: (1) 10 individual cores measuring 1 cm & times; 2.5 cm deep, evaluated as subsamples; (2) composites of 10 cores of 1 cm & times; 2.5 cm deep; and (3) tissue obtained by vertical mowing at two heights (4.8 or 7.1 mm bench set). Overall, vertical mowing was found to be the best sampling method for quantifying Clarireedia in foliage. Vertical mowing sampled 2.62% of each plot compared with only 0.23% for cores and composites, had the lowest variability in Ct values, consistently identified plots containing asymptomatic and symptomatic tissue, and represents a sampling method that could be easily adopted by golf course superintendents to monitor the population of Clarireedia to schedule fungicide applications and potentially reduce fungicide inputs.
Soil heterogeneity has been shown to affect seed germination of plant species in monocultures, and plant species' interactions in a community may also impact seed germination. However, whether and how both factors interact to modulate seed germination is still unclear. To investigate these interactive effects, a controlled experiment was conducted in which seven species compositions derived from all the possible combinations of three forage grasses (Festuca elata, Bromus inermis, and Elymus breviaristatus) were factorially crossed with four levels of soil heterogeneity. This heterogeneity gradient was developed by applying resource-rich and resource-poor substrates in an alternating pattern in pots, creating fine, small, medium, and large patch sizes. The results showed that patch size and species composition interactively affected seed germination percentage. Specifically, the small patch size supported a higher seed germination percentage in the mixture with three species compared with other patch sizes (i.e., fine, medium, and large patch sizes). Moreover, this pattern was only found in the resource-rich substrate, not in the resource-poor substrate. A combination of abiotic (e.g., soil moisture and temperature) and biotic effects (e.g., allelopathic suppression) may have caused these varying patterns. Designs such as ours that vary soil heterogeneity in three dimensions should be combined with additional measurements of the underlying mechanisms to further elucidate the factors governing seed germination.
Grasslands cover nearly one-third of Earth's terrestrial surface and play a critical role in global carbon and nutrient cycling; however, those in semi-arid regions are particularly vulnerable to climate variability and local disturbances. Disentangling the relative influences of climatic drivers and local disturbances remains a major ecological challenge. This study investigated relative influences of climate drivers and local disturbances on grassland dynamics in Hustai National Park (HNP), which serves as a critical habitat for the Przewalski's horse, through an integrated approach combining satellite-derived normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), field-based biomass measurements, and soil-plant nutrient analyses. The park exhibited sensitivity to climate variability, particularly rising temperatures. A negative correlation between land surface temperature and NDVI indicated increasing climate stress across the region. Results showed that a 1 degrees C increase in temperature reduced net primary production by 14.07 g C m-2, while a 1 mm increase in precipitation increased net primary production by 1.28 g C m-2 during summer. Vegetation analysis further revealed a shift from subshrubs/shrubs to grasses/forbs in HNP, suggesting potential land degradation associated with elevated herbivore activity, supported by higher dung cover and standing dead biomass. Soil-plant nutrient relationships demonstrated species-specific responses, with Stipa krylovii showing greater temperature sensitivity, while Artemisia frigida exhibited higher uptake of major mineral elements. These differences may arise from herbivore preference for palatable species or intrinsic differences in nutrient acquisition strategies between monocots and dicots. These findings provide important baseline insights into climate-grazing interactions and offer guidance for sustainable grassland management and conservation in semi-arid ecosystems.
The adverse effects of drought and salinity stress are associated with various stress-signaling pathways and transcription factors, which can be unique or shared by both salt and drought stresses. This article provides an overview of recent advances in grasses, focusing on hormonal signaling, the mitogenactivated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, stress signal transduction molecules (calcium, reactive oxygen species [ROS], gamma-aminobutyric acid [GABA]), and transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation under drought and salt stress. Studies suggest that signaling molecules can overlap between salt and drought stress; therefore, studying the subsequent signal transduction pathways is of great importance. Transcriptomic studies highlight stress-specific gene regulation in hormone signaling (e.g., ion transporters are strongly upregulated under salt stress, whereas abscisic acid [ABA]-related genes, the growth-promoting hormones, including indoleacetic acid [IAA] and gibberellic acid [GA], are downregulated under drought). ABA signaling, MAPK cascade, ROS pathway, and calcium signaling are central to both stresses. However, salt stress mostly involves ABA signaling, rapid MAPK activation, and ion homeostasis. Studies highlighted genotype-specific responses and tissue-specific regulation of hormone signal transduction and MAPK signaling. The integration of these pathways underscores the significance of molecular crosstalk in drought and salinity adaptation, offering opportunities for genetic engineering and breeding programs to enhance stress tolerance in grass species.
The use of biostimulants in turfgrass management has been growing to reduce chemical fertilizers, with the goal of healthier and more resilient turfgrass. This study investigates the performance of three bermudagrass cultivars (Arden 15, Princess 77, and Sultan) under different biostimulant-based programs in two Mediterranean locations (Valencia, Spain; Legnaro, Italy) over two years. The research focused on turfgrass quality, color, NDVI, green cover, and stolon carbohydrate reserves during autumn dormancy and spring green-up periods. Climate significantly influenced bermudagrass performance, with a shorter dormancy period in Spain compared to Italy. Princess 77 showed higher quality and color ratings during warmer months, slower color loss approaching dormancy, and delayed spring green-up, especially in Italy. Arden 15 and Sultan performed similarly throughout the study, with Arden 15 showing good spring green-up in Italy. The biostimulant Hicure had a limited impact on overall turfgrass quality, with modest improvements observed mainly in Spain for Arden 15. Stolon carbohydrate analysis revealed that Princess 77 had lower starch content in early spring, particularly in Italy, suggesting greater carbohydrate utilization during winter. Bermudagrass performance is primarily influenced by cultivar adaptability to local climate conditions, with temperature being a critical factor affecting dormancy, green-up, and stolon carbohydrate reserves. The biostimulant Hicure showed limited effectiveness in extending the vegetative period or promoting spring green-up compared to traditional urea fertilization.
Nuclear factor Y (NF-Y) transcription factors are important regulators of plant growth, development, and stress responses. However, the functions of NF-Ys in bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L.), a warm-season turfgrass species with wide applications and great value, have not yet been elucidated. In this study, 88 CdNF-Y genes, including 32 CdNF-YAs, 31 CdNF-YBs, and 25 CdNF-YCs, were successfully identified in the bermudagrass genome. Sequence analyses revealed that three subfamilies of CdNF-Y genes exhibited different gene structure and protein domain characteristics. Expression profiling indicated that eight CdNF-Ygenes were constitutively expressed in all samples, whereas other CdNF-Ygenes were preferentially expressed in a few organs or induced by specific stresses. RT-qPCR indicated that three CdNF-Y genes, CdNF-YA-1A1, CdNF-YB-7B2, and CdNF-YC-1A2, have similar tissue expression profiles. Moreover, their expression abundances were all reduced under heat stress treatment. Subcellular localization analysis indicated that CdNF-YA-1A1 was located in the nucleus, while CdNF-YB-7B2 and CdNF-YC-1A2 were both simultaneously located in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Yeast two-hybrid assay, yeast three-hybrid assay, and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay collectively indicated that CdNF-YB-7B2 and CdNF-YC-1A2 could interact to form a heterodimer, which then interacts with CdNF-YA-1A1 to form a heterotrimer. Results of this study greatly expanded our understanding of NF-Y genes and NF-Y protein complexes in bermudagrass.
The winter survival of St. Augustinegrass (Stenotaphrum secundatum [Walt.] Kuntze) in the transition zone is constrained by its poor freeze tolerance. A limited understanding of the genetic and physiological mechanisms involved in low-temperature response has hindered progress in breeding for this trait. Identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with winter survival will enhance the breeding effort for trait improvement via marker-assisted selection (MAS). This study identified QTL for winter survival traits in a mapping population containing 184 lines derived from the self-pollination of freeze-tolerant cultivar'Raleigh'. Phenotypic data on percent green cover (PGC), UAS-derived PGC (UPGC), fall color, winterkill, and winter injury were collected from three field trials established in 2021, 2022, and 2023. Leaf pigment content (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, and anthocyanins) in the fall was also measured through lab assays, but only in the 2023 field trial. A genetic linkage map constructed with 2,212 SNP markers was used for QTL analysis. QTL mapping identified 85 significant QTL, including eight genomic regions overlapping with prior winter survival QTL across chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, and 9. Multiple candidate genes associated with low-temperature stress tolerance were discovered within these overlapping regions. These findings provide valuable genomic resources for improving winter survival in St. Augustinegrass through MAS.
Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and its hybrid with hybrid pennisetum (Pennisetum purpureum & times; Pennisetum americanum) are important high-yield forage grasses in tropical and subtropical regions. To analyze their genetic diversity and mine breeding-related functional genes, we developed a custom 10K liquid-phase single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array containing 11,486 SNPs based on the purple elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum 'Red') reference genome and performed high-throughput genotyping on 83 core accessions. Population structure analysis revealed that the tested materials could be clearly divided into two major groups which align with their distinct ancestry and hybridization history. Analysis of the SNP mutation spectrum showed that transition events (A > G, C > T) predominated (approximately 58.7% in total). Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses indicated that the captured variations were significantly enriched in functional categories related to stress resistance, signal transduction, and basic metabolism. On the basis of a genetic similarity analysis, we classified the germplasm into 58 genetic groups and selected 50 highly discriminative core SNPs to construct cultivar-specific fingerprints. This study established, for the first time in forage grasses, a medium-density liquid-phase array genotyping system integrated with functional loci, providing an efficient tool and gene resources for germplasm identification, resource management, and molecular breeding in elephant grass and hybrid Pennisetum.
Giant Juncao (Cenchrus fungigraminus) is a perennial C4 forage and bioenergy grass with high biomass productivity and strong tolerance to adverse environments. However, the transcriptional regulatory mechanisms underlying its stress adaptation remain poorly understood. WRKY transcription factors are key regulators of plant stress responses, but their genomic features and functional potential in this species have not been systematically investigated. Here, we identified 182 CfWRKY genes and classified them into three major groups based on phylogenetic relationships. Comprehensive analyses of their chromosomal distribution, gene structures, conserved motifs, cis-regulatory elements, and duplication patterns revealed that segmental duplication, alongside whole-genome duplication, was the primary force driving WRKY family expansion. Transcriptome analysis under salt treatments showed diverse and dynamic expression responses, with several CfWRKY genes exhibiting strong induction and early responsiveness. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis under drought and rehydration conditions further identified 31 stress-related modules and 27 CfWRKY candidates potentially involved in water-deficit adaptation. This study presents the first genome-wide characterization of the WRKY family in Giant Juncao and provides integrative insights into their evolutionary patterns and stress-responsive regulatory roles. Our findings offer valuable candidate genes and a molecular basis for functional genomics and breeding of stress-resilient forage and energy grasses.
Identification of winter hardy turf-type bermudagrass solely relies on phenotypic selection. Although effective, this method takes multiple years of field evaluation before we can reliably select superior genotypes. More efficient and precise selection methods are needed by breeding programs. African bermudagrass (Cynodon transvaalensis Burtt-Davy) has shown variations in winter hardiness and is routinely used for the development of turf-type interspecific hybrid cultivars (C. dactylon & times; C. transvaalensis). The objectives of this study were to develop kompetitive-allele specific polymerase chain reaction (KASP) markers linked to winter hardiness quantitative trait loci (QTL) and to implement genomic prediction for winter hardiness in African bermudagrass. On the basis of previous genomic information associated with winter hardiness, seven KASP markers linked to winter hardiness traits were developed and validated from three previously identified QTL regions. In addition, through the use of traditional genomic best linear unbiased prediction and machine learning-based random forest selection models, the highest prediction accuracy was 0.52 for winterkill, 0.50 for spring green-up, and 0.40 for spring green-up percent green cover. This study is the first report of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based, closely trait-linked molecular marker development and genomic selection in African bermudagrass, providing a foundation for the implementation of advanced methods for improving the selection accuracy and efficiency in winter hardiness improvement of African bermudagrass.
Winter wheat is susceptible to winterkill stresses, and management practices that target specific field problems, such as ice encasement, are needed. Therefore, a 2-year growth chamber study was conducted to assess the impact of two seeding depths (shallow: planted at 1.27 cm and deep: planted at 6.35 cm) on two winter wheat genotypes' survival following 0, 7, or 14 d of ice encasement. The two winter wheat genotypes used differed in coleoptiles length: 'DynaGro 9242W' (long coleoptile) and 'WhiteTail' (short coleoptile). This study measured chlorophyll fluorescence during acclimation, lipid peroxidation (as measured by malondialdehyde content) in leaf, root, and crown tissues, leaf area during recovery, biomass at harvest, and yield. Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters Fv/Fo, Fv/Fm, ET/ABS, ET/TR, VI, VJ, and Do were measured during acclimation and found to be significantly influenced by decreasing temperatures. Winter wheat sown deeper (6.35 cm) exhibited higher ET/ABS and ET/TR values, while the VI and VJ values were higher in plants sown at shallow depths, suggesting differences in the rate of stress-induced changes in the photosynthetic processes. Shallow seeding depth also appeared to offer advantages for plant growth. Plants sown at 1.27 cm had greater leaf area, biomass, and less lipid peroxidation in crown tissues under prolonged stress conditions. Additionally, DynaGro, with the longer coleoptile, demonstrated enhanced performance and resilience compared to WhiteTail, particularly under prolonged ice encasement stress. Results should be confirmed in field conditions to validate these findings.
Abscisic acid (ABA) is a key phytohormone regulating plant responses to abiotic stress, with ABA-responsive element binding factor/ABA-responsive element binding protein (ABF/AREB) transcription factors serving as central mediators in ABA signaling pathways. Despite their importance, a systematic characterization of this gene family in the economically important forage crop Medicago sativa L. (alfalfa) has been lacking. In this study, we carried out genome-wide identification of ABF/AREB family members in alfalfa using integrated homology-based and domain-based search strategies. Subsequent analyses included phylogenetic classification, examination of the gene structures and conserved motifs, prediction of promoter cis-regulatory elements, and expression profiling using public RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) datasets, complemented by experimental validation under drought, salt, and cold stress conditions. In total, 46 MsABF genes were identified and phylogenetically grouped into seven distinct clades. Family expansion appears to have been driven primarily by segmental duplication events. Promoter analysis uncovered 826 cis-regulatory elements, exhibiting distinct distributions across phylogenetic groups. Expression analysis revealed both tissue-preferential patterns and significant induction of specific members, such as MsABF18, MsABF20, and MsABF25, under multiple abiotic stresses. This study firstly provides the genome-wide overview of the MsABF gene family in alfalfa, elucidating its genomic organization, evolutionary dynamics, and transcriptional responses to environmental challenges. Our findings establish a valuable genomic resource and identify candidate genes for future functional studies aimed at understanding and improving stress adaptation in alfalfa.
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is a globally important forage crop. Identification of enhancer cis-regulatory elements (CREs) in high-expression gene promoters is essential for precise gene regulation and molecular breeding. This study aimed to systematically screen and functionally validate enhancer CREs in alfalfa. Twenty constitutively highly expressed genes (coefficient of variation < 0.2) were identified from leaf, stem, and root tissues of 15-day-old alfalfa seedlings (nine RNA-seq libraries, n = 3 per tissue). Promoter regions (2,000 bp upstream to 500 bp downstream of the transcription start site) were extracted and analyzed using PlantCARE, FIMO, and Fisher's exact test (adjusted p < 0.05). Ten candidate enhancer CREs (M1-M10) were identified, and an 89-bp fragment containing a CAAT box from the MsEF1-alpha promoter, named M11, was selected for functional validation. Recombinant promoter-LUC vectors containing M1, M2, M7, and M11 were constructed and transiently expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana. Luciferase (LUC) activity was quantified to assess enhancer function. Deletion of M11 from the MsEF1-alpha promoter reduced LUC activity by approximately 55%, whereas insertion of M11 into the MsLEA2 promoter increased activity by approximately 183%. M1 and M7 exhibited no significant enhancer activity, while M2 showed unstable enhancing effects. M11 is a robust and promoter-independent enhancer CRE in alfalfa, providing a valuable tool for gene regulation and molecular breeding.
Shade stress is a major constraint for the growth and performance of turfgrass in urban environments. To investigate shade tolerance mechanisms in centipedegrass (Eremochloa ophiuroides), we evaluated 16 genotypes under 66% and 99% shading for 18 d. CP11 was identified as shade-tolerant; CP2 was shade-sensitive. Both were subjected to detailed physiological and transcriptomic analyses. CP11 exhibited significantly reduced leaf wilting, higher relative water content, greater membrane stability, and enhanced chlorophyll retention compared with CP2. In addition, CP11 maintained higher antioxidant enzyme activities and osmolyte accumulation, supporting superior oxidative stress mitigation and osmotic adjustment. Transcriptome analysis identified 259 upregulated and 278 downregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in CP11 leaves, and 108 upregulated and 104 downregulated DEGs in roots, consistently regulated at 6 and 12 d under 99% shading compared with CP2, revealing candidate genes like psbB, PP2C, and CRF2 for CP11's enhanced shade adaptability, which highlight molecular mechanisms involving chlorophyll biosynthesis, stress signaling, and ethylene regulation. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis showed that CP11 upregulates leaf pathways for nuclear division, water transport, and plasma membrane integrity, and root pathways for energy metabolism and membrane functions, while downregulating energy-intensive processes like DNA repair and ion transport, indicating a resource-conserving strategy that, together with coordinated physiological protection and transcriptomic reprogramming, underscores CP11's multifaceted adaptations to prolonged shading stress. This work provides mechanistic insights into shade adaptation and establishes a genetic foundation for breeding shade-resilient centipedegrass cultivars to support sustainable urban landscaping.
Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) is a vital cool-season forage and turfgrass species whose productivity is increasingly threatened by climate change-induced abiotic stresses. The Heat Shock Factor (HSF) family are key transcription factors known to mediate plant stress responses, yet their functional landscape in perennial ryegrass remains poorly characterized, especially beyond heat stress. In this study, genome-wide identification revealed 26 LpHSF genes in perennial ryegrass, harboring abundant stress-responsive cis-elements. Moving beyond a singular focus on thermotolerance, the study established a comprehensive spatio-temporal expression atlas of LpHSFs. The findings demonstrate that specific LpHSFs, particularly members of the LpHSFA2 subclass, LpHSFA3, LpHSFC1.3, and LpHSFC1.4, are significantly upregulated under a broad spectrum of abiotic stresses, including salinity, alkalinity, and heavy metal exposure, indicating their roles as broad-spectrum stress regulators. Furthermore, this study uncovered distinct tissue-specific expression patterns, with Class A genes predominantly expressed in leaves and Classes B and C in roots and crowns, implicating their roles in organ development and stress adaptation. Notably, the expression of numerous LpHSFs during leaf senescence and their induction by hormones such as ABA and MeJA further highlights their functional diversity. This study provides the first integrated expression atlas of the LpHSF family, revealing their versatile roles in coordinating responses to diverse environmental and developmental signals. This work lays a crucial foundation for future functional studies and positions LpHSFs as prime targets for molecular breeding aimed at enhancing multi-stress resilience in perennial ryegrass.
Achnatherum inebrians is a perennial plant belonging to the Poaceae, subfamily Pooideae, which often forms a symbiosis with fungal endophytes of the genus Epichloe . In this study, E. gansuensis-infected (E+) and E. gansuensis-free (E-) A. inebrians were inoculated with Blumeria graminis (pathogen-inoculated, P+; non-inoculated, P-) under greenhouse conditions. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and transcriptome sequencing were combined to characterize the response of the leaf cuticular wax of A. inebrians plants with and without the Epichloe endophyte to B. graminis stress. The present results revealed that the predominant components of the cuticular wax of A. inebrians leaves under the Epichloe endophyte and B. graminis treatments were hydrocarbons, esters, and fatty acids. The total cuticular wax and ester contents of the E+ and E- A. inebrians leaves significantly (p < 0.05) increased under the B. graminis treatment, but the total cuticular wax and ester contents of the E+ leaves were greater than those of the E- plants. Through transcriptome analysis, 15 genes that were differentially expressed and related to cuticular wax biosynthesis were identified, including fadD, fadF, TER, SSI2, BiP, CER1, FAR, and KCS.
Genetic engineering and gene editing present transformative opportunities for turfgrass improvement by permitting the introduction of genetic variation that does not naturally exist within a species. However, the successful application of these approaches depends on the generation of efficient and reproducible tissue culture protocols. Optimizing these methodologies for warm-season turfgrass species is essential to ensure the scalability and reliability of genetic modification efforts. In this study, parameters affecting the efficiency of callus formation, growth, and somatic embryogenesis were studied in zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.). Seeds were evaluated under four auxin and four cytokinin concentrations for callus induction and subculture. The combination of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) = 1.5 mgL-1 and 6-benzylaminopurine (6-BA) = 0.05 mgL-1 was identified as the most effective treatment for callus induction with a 67% success rate. Results demonstrated that a moderate concentration of 2,4-D combined with minimal 6-BA significantly enhanced callus formation and net callus growth over time. Additionally, plant regeneration trials revealed that gibberellic acid (GA3) concentrations influenced somatic embryo development, with high levels yielding the highest regeneration efficiency. A total of 1,387 plants were recovered from 1,536 calli. The optimized protocol described here provides a foundation for potential advancements in zoysiagrass breeding, enabling research on somaclonal variation, plant transformation, and genome-editing tools that will contribute to creating genetically modified turfgrasses with improved agronomic traits.
Improvements in water use efficiency and drought resistance in turfgrasses can help them maintain performance and quality with reduced irrigation, thereby contributing to water conservation. This study aimed to better understand the importance of drought avoidance, tolerance, and recovery from drought across three economically important cultivars of zoysiagrass and a newly released zoysiagrass cultivar with increased drought resistance. Experiments were performed under controlled conditions using long pots (30 cm deep) and in the field. Results from the controlled drought demonstrate that Lobo, Zeon, Empire, and Meyer have similar drought avoidance. The similar drought avoidance between Lobo and Zeon was also confirmed under natural droughts at two field locations. Tolerance and recovery from drought differed across cultivars. Lobo displayed greater tolerance than Zeon, Empire, and Meyer under controlled drought conditions. The greater tolerance of Lobo over Zeon was consistent with results from field droughts. Under controlled drought, Lobo and Meyer had greater recovery capacity than Zeon and Empire, and under field droughts, Lobo also had greater recovery than Zeon. While most studies show differences in water use across zoysiagrass lines and cultivars, contrasting drought tolerance and recovery capacity were identified in this study. The present findings indicate that drought avoidance, tolerance, and recovery capacity in zoysiagrass are independent of one another, which opens the possibility of achieving all three simultaneously through breeding efforts. For that, selection methods need to account for the three strategies, preferably at the field level or under controlled conditions using long pots.
