The prevalence of digital technologies in contemporary human interactions has elevated the role of digital means in contractual relations among society members, prompting renewed attention to smart contracts as automated, code-based legal instruments. This study examines the nature, structure, and operational mechanisms of smart contracts, comparing them to traditional contract theory under the Egyptian Civil Code (Law No. 131/1948). Smart contracts create binding obligations through software-based processes that rely on encryption, offering efficiency but also posing technical and doctrinal challenges. The paper investigates whether the Egyptian legal framework can adequately address issues such as consent, validity, termination, and dispute resolution in digital contracts. By analyzing smart-contract characteristics through the lens of Egyptian civil-law principles, the study seeks to clarify how existing doctrines may be adapted to accommodate emerging technologies. It ultimately proposes a jurisprudential foundation for integrating smart contracts into Egyptian law, ensuring legal certainty and coherence with established contractual norms.
The Road Accident Fund (RAF) was created to provide social protection and compensation for victims of motor-vehicle accidents. Yet, its functioning has increasingly been compromised by unethical conduct from some legal practitioners. This paper examines the extent to which the RAF fulfills its mandate and the ways in which certain lawyers have misappropriated or withheld client compensation funds, violating fiduciary duties and constitutional rights. Through doctrinal research, it analyzes the legal framework governing RAF litigation, including the Road Accident Fund Act, the Legal Practice Act, Legal Practice Council Rules, and relevant constitutional provisions. Key case law is reviewed to illustrate judicial responses to professional misconduct. The findings indicate significant weaknesses in regulatory enforcement and oversight. The study concludes by proposing reforms to strengthen accountability, enhance claimant protection, and restore confidence in the legal profession’s role in RAF matters.
The modern administrative state relies extensively on delegated legislation to address complex governance challenges, yet this reliance creates fundamental democratic accountability deficits. This paper argues that inadequate oversight mechanisms in delegated legislation processes create systematic vulnerabilities to crony capitalism and state capture, thereby exacerbating social inequality. Through theoretical synthesis and doctrinal analysis of administrative law principles, this research demonstrates how weak parliamentary scrutiny, limited judicial review, and insufficient public participation enable private interests to manipulate regulatory processes for personal advantage. The paper presents evidence showing that captured administrative decision-making systematically redirects public resources away from broad social welfare toward narrow elite interests, thereby reinforcing existing inequality structures. The research contributes a comprehensive framework linking administrative law design flaws to broader political economy pathologies and their social consequences, offering theoretical insights for administrative reform aimed at strengthening democratic governance and reducing inequality.
No one can doubt today the close relationship between international trade and development. In this regard, the existence of a universal multilateral trading system—based on rules, open, non-discriminatory, and equitable—constitutes one of the objectives underpinning the Sustainable Development Goals adopted within the United Nations framework. From the perspective of commercial actors, the impact of the rules derived from the World Trade Organization on their commercial activities becomes essential. The pursuit of legal certainty is essential in business, particularly in international trade. In this regard, one can distinguish between a public-legal framework and a private dimension, the latter being “regulated” by the rules of Private International Law.
The modern administrative state relies extensively on delegated legislation to address complex governance challenges, yet this reliance creates fundamental democratic accountability deficits. This paper argues that inadequate oversight mechanisms in delegated legislation processes create systematic vulnerabilities to crony capitalism and state capture, thereby exacerbating social inequality. Through theoretical synthesis and doctrinal analysis of administrative law principles, this research demonstrates how weak parliamentary scrutiny, limited judicial review, and insufficient public participation enable private interests to manipulate regulatory processes for personal advantage. The paper presents evidence showing that captured administrative decision-making systematically redirects public resources away from broad social welfare toward narrow elite interests, thereby reinforcing existing inequality structures. The research contributes a comprehensive framework linking administrative law design flaws to broader political economy pathologies and their social consequences, offering theoretical insights for administrative reform aimed at strengthening democratic governance and reducing inequality. __________ PODER DELEGADO, GOBERNANZA CAPTURADA: CÓMO LAS DEBILIDADES EN LA RENDICIÓN DE CUENTAS ADMINISTRATIVA IMPULSA EL CAPITALISMO DE AMIGOS Y LA DESIGUALDAD SOCIAL El Estado administrativo moderno depende en gran medida de la legislación delegada para abordar los complejos desafíos de gobernanza; sin embargo, esta dependencia genera déficits fundamentales de rendición de cuentas democrática. Este artículo argumenta que los mecanismos de supervisión inadecuados en los procesos de legislación delegada generan vulnerabilidades sistemáticas al capitalismo de amiguismos y a la captura del Estado, lo que posteriormente exacerba la desigualdad social. Mediante una síntesis teórica y un análisis doctrinal de los principios del derecho administrativo, esta investigación demuestra cómo el escrutinio parlamentario deficiente, la revisión judicial limitada y la participación pública insuficiente permiten que los intereses privados manipulen los procesos regulatorios para obtener beneficios personales. El artículo presenta evidencia que demuestra que la toma de decisiones administrativas capturadas redirige sistemáticamente los recursos públicos del bienestar social hacia intereses de élite, reforzando así las estructuras de desigualdad existentes. La investigación aporta un marco integral que vincula las fallas de diseño del derecho administrativo con patologías más amplias de la economía política y sus consecuencias sociales, ofreciendo perspectivas teóricas para la reforma administrativa destinada a fortalecer la gobernanza democrática y reducir la desigualdad. __________ 权力下放，治理沦陷：行政问责机制的薄弱如何助长裙带资本主义和社会不平等 现代行政国家广泛依赖授权立法来应对复杂的治理挑战，然而这种依赖却造成了根本性的民主问责缺陷。本文认为，授权立法过程中监督机制的不足，使得国家容易受到裙带资本主义和权力攫取的影响，进而加剧社会不平等。通过对行政法原则的理论综合和教义分析，本文揭示了议会监督薄弱、司法审查有限以及公众参与不足如何使私人利益集团得以操纵监管程序以谋取私利。本文提供的证据表明，被权力攫取的行政决策系统性地将公共资源从广泛的社会福利转向狭隘的精英利益，从而强化了现有的不平等结构。该研究构建了一个综合框架，将行政法设计缺陷与更广泛的政治经济弊病及其社会后果联系起来，为旨在加强民主治理和减少不平等的行政改革提供了理论见解。
We are pleased to announce the second issue of 2025 of the International Journal of Law in a Changing World – IJLCW. As editors, we are proud to observe the journal’s growing reputation worldwide, reflected in the rising number of submissions and citations. The journal currently holds a Google H-Index of 7 and is cited by leading publications in law and related fields. To celebrate its fourth year of publication, we present a diverse issue, both geographically and across a variety of topics.
No one can doubt today the close relationship between international trade and development. In this regard, the existence of a universal multilateral trading system—based on rules, open, non-discriminatory, and equitable—constitutes one of the objectives underpinning the Sustainable Development Goals adopted within the United Nations framework. From the perspective of commercial actors, the impact of the rules derived from the World Trade Organization on their commercial activities becomes essential. The pursuit of legal certainty is essential in business, particularly in international trade. In this regard, one can distinguish between a public-legal framework and a private dimension, the latter being “regulated” by the rules of Private International Law. __________ LA OMC Y LOS RETOS DEL COMERCIO MUNDIAL: RIESGOS Y OPORTUNIDADES EN EL PANORAMA ACTUAL Hoy en día, nadie puede dudar de la estrecha relación entre el comercio internacional y el desarrollo. En este sentido, la existencia de un sistema multilateral de comercio universal —basado en normas, abierto, no discriminatorio y equitativo— constituye uno de los objetivos que sustentan los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible adoptados en el marco de las Naciones Unidas. Desde la perspectiva de los actores comerciales, el impacto de las normas derivadas de la Organización Mundial del Comercio en sus actividades comerciales resulta esencial. La búsqueda de la seguridad jurídica es esencial en los negocios, en particular en el comercio internacional. En este sentido, se puede distinguir entre un marco jurídico público y una dimensión privada, esta última regulada por las normas del Derecho Internacional Privado. __________ 世界贸易组织与全球贸易的挑战：当前形势下的风险与机遇 如今，国际贸易与发展之间的密切关系毋庸置疑。为此，建立一个基于规则、开放、非歧视和公平的普遍多边贸易体系，是联合国框架下通过的可持续发展目标的核心目标之一。从商业主体的角度来看，世界贸易组织规则对其商业活动的影响至关重要。追求法律确定性在商业活动中，尤其是在国际贸易中，至关重要。在这方面，我们可以区分公共法律框架和私人层面，后者受国际私法规则的“规制”。
The prevalence of digital technologies in contemporary human interactions has elevated the role of digital means in contractual relations among society members, prompting renewed attention to smart contracts as automated, code-based legal instruments. This study examines the nature, structure, and operational mechanisms of smart contracts, comparing them to traditional contract theory under the Egyptian Civil Code (Law No. 131/1948). Smart contracts create binding obligations through software-based processes that rely on encryption, offering efficiency but also posing technical and doctrinal challenges. The paper investigates whether the Egyptian legal framework can adequately address issues such as consent, validity, termination, and dispute resolution in digital contracts. By analyzing smart-contract characteristics through the lens of Egyptian civil-law principles, the study seeks to clarify how existing doctrines may be adapted to accommodate emerging technologies. It ultimately proposes a jurisprudential foundation for integrating smart contracts into Egyptian law, ensuring legal certainty and coherence with established contractual norms. __________ CONTRATOS INTELIGENTES BAJO EL DERECHO CIVIL EGIPCIO: ESTRUCTURA Y TERMINACIÓN La prevalencia de las tecnologías digitales en las interacciones humanas contemporáneas ha elevado el papel de los medios digitales en las relaciones contractuales entre los miembros de la sociedad, impulsando una renovada atención a los contratos inteligentes como instrumentos legales automatizados basados en código. Este estudio examina la naturaleza, la estructura y los mecanismos operativos de los contratos inteligentes, comparándolos con la teoría contractual tradicional del Código Civil egipcio (Ley n.º 131/1948). Los contratos inteligentes crean obligaciones vinculantes mediante procesos basados en software que se basan en el cifrado, lo que ofrece eficiencia, pero también plantea desafíos técnicos y doctrinales. El documento investiga si el marco legal egipcio puede abordar adecuadamente cuestiones como el consentimiento, la validez, la rescisión y la resolución de disputas en los contratos digitales. Al analizar las características de los contratos inteligentes a través de los principios del derecho civil egipcio, el estudio busca aclarar cómo las doctrinas existentes pueden adaptarse para dar cabida a las tecnologías emergentes. En última instancia, propone una base jurisprudencial para la integración de los contratos inteligentes en el derecho egipcio, garantizando la seguridad jurídica y la coherencia con las normas contractuales establecidas. __________ 埃及民法下的智能合约：结构与终止 数字技术在当代人际互动中的普及提升了数字手段在社会成员间契约关系中的作用，促使人们重新关注智能合约这种自动化、基于代码的法律工具。本研究考察了智能合约的性质、结构和运行机制，并将其与埃及民法典（1948年第131号法律）下的传统合同理论进行比较。智能合约通过基于软件的加密流程产生具有约束力的义务，这在提高效率的同时，也带来了技术和法理上的挑战。本文探讨了埃及法律框架是否能够充分解决数字合约中的同意、有效性、终止和争议解决等问题。通过运用埃及民法原则分析智能合约的特征，本研究旨在阐明如何调整现有法律原则以适应新兴技术。最终，本研究提出了将智能合约纳入埃及法律的法理基础，以确保法律确定性并与既定的合同规范保持一致。
The Road Accident Fund (RAF) was created to provide social protection and compensation for victims of motor-vehicle accidents. Yet, its functioning has increasingly been compromised by unethical conduct from some legal practitioners. This paper examines the extent to which the RAF fulfills its mandate and the ways in which certain lawyers have misappropriated or withheld client compensation funds, violating fiduciary duties and constitutional rights. Through doctrinal research, it analyzes the legal framework governing RAF litigation, including the Road Accident Fund Act, the Legal Practice Act, Legal Practice Council Rules, and relevant constitutional provisions. Key case law is reviewed to illustrate judicial responses to professional misconduct. The findings indicate significant weaknesses in regulatory enforcement and oversight. The study concludes by proposing reforms to strengthen accountability, enhance claimant protection, and restore confidence in the legal profession’s role in RAF matters. __________ EVALUACIÓN DE LA ALEGACIÓN DE APROPIACIÓN INDEBIDA DE FONDOS DE COMPENSACIÓN DE CLIENTES POR ABOGADOS DE LESIONES PERSONALES EN SUDÁFRICA: RETIRANDO LOS ARCHIVOS DEL MALETÍN El Fondo de Accidentes de Tránsito (RAF) se creó para brindar protección social e indemnización a las víctimas de accidentes automovilísticos. Sin embargo, su funcionamiento se ha visto cada vez más comprometido por la conducta poco ética de algunos profesionales del derecho. Este documento examina hasta qué punto el RAF cumple con su mandato y las formas en que ciertos abogados han malversado o retenido fondos de compensación de clientes, violando deberes fiduciarios y derechos constitucionales. A través de una investigación doctrinal, se analiza el marco legal que rige los litigios del RAF, incluyendo la Ley del Fondo de Accidentes de Tránsito, la Ley de Práctica Legal, el Reglamento del Consejo de Práctica Legal y las disposiciones constitucionales pertinentes. Se revisa la jurisprudencia clave para ilustrar las respuestas judiciales a la mala conducta profesional. Los hallazgos indican deficiencias significativas en la aplicación y supervisión regulatoria. El estudio concluye proponiendo reformas para fortalecer la rendición de cuentas, mejorar la protección de los demandantes y restablecer la confianza en el papel de la abogacía en asuntos relacionados con el RAF. __________ 评估南非人身伤害律师涉嫌挪用客户赔偿金的行为：揭开法律的神秘面纱 道路交通事故基金（RAF）的设立旨在为机动车事故受害者提供社会保障和赔偿。然而，一些法律从业人员的不道德行为日益损害了该基金的运作。本文探讨了道路交通事故基金履行其职责的程度，以及某些律师挪用或扣留客户赔偿金、违反信托义务和宪法权利的方式。通过法理学研究，本文分析了道路交通事故基金诉讼的法律框架，包括《道路交通事故基金法》、《法律执业法》、《法律执业委员会规则》和相关宪法条款。本文还回顾了关键案例，以说明司法机关对职业不当行为的回应。研究结果表明，监管执法和监督方面存在重大缺陷。该研究最后提出改革建议，旨在加强问责制、提升索赔人保护，并恢复公众对法律界在道路交通事故基金（RAF）事务中所扮演角色的信心。
Village regulations (Perdes) play a central role in linking national development policies with local needs, reflecting villagers’ daily realities. Although crucial for governance, their legal status within Indonesia’s legal hierarchy remains problematic. This study uses normative legal research to examine the regulatory gap surrounding the review of Perdes. While Perdes are subordinate to Regional Regulations, no institution—neither the Supreme Court nor the State Administrative Court (PTUN)—is clearly empowered to review their formal or material validity. As a result, Perdes occupy a legal grey zone lacking an authoritative oversight mechanism. This situation contradicts the constitutional principle of legal certainty under Article 28D(1) of the 1945 Constitution. The paper argues that the absence of a judicial review framework creates a legal vacuum that undermines accountability and the effectiveness of village-level governance, and calls for reforms to properly integrate Perdes into Indonesia’s system of statutory regulation.
This paper examines the second ECOWAS Court of Justice ruling in Registered Trustees of the HEDA Resource Centre v. Nigeria, a case concerning gas-flaring pollution in the Niger Delta. The applicants argued that the resulting environmental harm violated rights to health, human dignity, and a safe environment under the African Charter. While the Court acknowledged the holistic human-rights framework, it declined to grant the specific remedies sought, largely because the applicants did not provide sufficient scientific evidence establishing a clear causal link between gas flaring and the alleged harm. The decision illustrates the growing role of scientific data in environmental litigation. It also resonates with approaches taken by other international courts that prioritize protecting human life by safeguarding healthy environmental conditions. The case highlights both the potential and the evidentiary challenges of advancing environmental rights claims in regional human rights systems. __________ PROTECCIÓN AMBIENTAL Y SENTENCIA SOBRE LA VIDA HUMANA DEL TRIBUNAL DE JUSTICIA DE LA CEDEAO CONTRA NIGERIA Este artículo analiza la segunda sentencia del Tribunal de Justicia de la CEDEAO en el caso Fideicomisarios Registrados del Centro de Recursos HEDA contra Nigeria, un caso relativo a la contaminación por quema de gas en el Delta del Níger. Los demandantes argumentaron que el daño ambiental resultante violaba los derechos a la salud, la dignidad humana y un medio ambiente seguro consagrados en la Carta Africana. Si bien el Tribunal reconoció el marco holístico de derechos humanos, se negó a conceder las reparaciones específicas solicitadas, principalmente porque los demandantes no aportaron pruebas científicas suficientes que establecieran una relación causal clara entre la quema de gas y el supuesto daño. La decisión ilustra el creciente papel de los datos científicos en los litigios ambientales. También coincide con los enfoques adoptados por otros tribunales internacionales que priorizan la protección de la vida humana mediante la salvaguardia de condiciones ambientales saludables. El caso destaca tanto el potencial como los desafíos probatorios que supone la presentación de demandas de derechos ambientales en los sistemas regionales de derechos humanos. __________ 西非国家经济共同体法院对尼日利亚的环境保护与人类生命裁决 本文探讨了西非国家经济共同体法院在“HEDA资源中心注册受托人诉尼日利亚”一案中的第二次裁决。该案涉及尼日尔三角洲的天然气燃烧污染。申请人认为，由此造成的环境损害违反了《非洲人权宪章》规定的健康权、人格尊严权和环境安全权。尽管法院认可了整体人权框架，但拒绝给予申请人所寻求的具体救济，主要原因是申请人未能提供充分的科学证据来证明天然气燃烧与所指控的损害之间存在明确的因果关系。该裁决表明科学数据在环境诉讼中的作用日益增强。它也与其他国际法院的做法相呼应，这些法院优先考虑通过维护健康的环境条件来保护人类生命。该案凸显了在区域人权体系中推进环境权利主张的潜力和证据方面的挑战。
China is making significant efforts to comply with international standards in dispute resolution. The country has set up the China International Commercial Courts (CICC) in Shenzhen and Xi'an, while the pilot Free Trade Zones (FTZs) are developing their own mechanisms for resolving international commercial disputes. This article examines recent developments and solutions implemented in various FTZs in China. The analysis concludes that China is employing legal transplantation and reviewing various solutions to resolve disputes within the FTZs. Therefore, the FTZs are facilitating the reform of dispute resolution in China. However, there is currently no uniform national-level legislation for Sino-foreign disputes handled in the FTZs. Instead, each FTZ adopts its own dispute resolution rules, including specialized arbitration institutions and 'one-stop-shop' platforms. In order to encourage more parties to resolve their Sino-foreign disputes in the FTZs, a unified approach and set of regulations are required.
New technologies are transforming international arbitration, with institutions adopting digital tools and case management systems to streamline proceedings. Artificial Intelligence (AI), in particular, is reshaping the field by introducing innovation-driven solutions that enhance efficiency. This article explores AI’s role in international arbitration, focusing on its potential to improve gender diversity in the appointment of arbitrators. Specifically, it examines whether AI-based selection tools can reduce discrimination and challenge entrenched stereotypes, such as the dominance of the “male, pale, and stale” profile in arbitral tribunals. The study suggests that AI could mark a turning point by promoting more inclusive selection processes. However, this potential hinges on the development of unbiased, well-programmed AI systems. While AI offers a promising path toward increasing diversity, its effectiveness will depend on its ability to avoid replicating existing biases and ensure fairness in the selection and appointment of women arbitrators.
The intersection of women, law, and digital technologies is a burgeoning area of study with profound implications for societal structures and individual rights. This paper examines the multifaceted relationship between women, legal systems, and digital technologies, exploring the opportunities and challenges presented by the integration of technology into legal frameworks. It investigates topics such as gender biases in algorithmic decision-making, cybersecurity concerns affecting women, legal responses to online harassment and gender-based violence, women's representation in digital law spaces, and the impact of emerging technologies on women's rights and access to justice. By synthesizing existing research and offering insights into future directions, this paper contributes to a deeper understanding of how digital technologies are reshaping the landscape of law and its impact on women. Furthermore, it underscores the importance of addressing gender disparities and promoting inclusivity in the design and implementation of legal and technological systems.
Personal data has become a valuable business resource but is increasingly targeted by cyberattacks and leaks. This study uses comparative legal analysis and formal legal methods to examine how citizens' data rights can be better protected in the digital age. Focusing on liability and data breaches, the paper compares Russia’s personal data protection framework with European and American approaches. The findings suggest that effective protection requires more than just listing rights for data subjects—it demands enforceable guarantees in cyberspace. The study proposes both compliance and post-control measures aimed at preventing breaches and addressing their root causes. It also recommends assigning liability to data operators proportionate to the harm caused and remedied. The analysis of current laws and enforcement practices reveals that strengthening legal accountability and implementing preventive mechanisms are essential steps toward safeguarding personal data in an increasingly digital and interconnected world.
Dear readers, I am pleased to greet you on the pages of our journal! This time, the editorial board dedicates a special issue to women and men discussing women's issues from a legal perspective. This is to support women's research, to provide a platform for colleagues to speak out, and to show what can be achieved in science and law. My colleagues from different countries are presenting their research in different areas of law on the most challenging issues.I confess that until now I had not thought about how many women can advance the legal profession. Sure, I see lawyers on a daily basis, but it didn't become the focus of my attention. Now that I have done some research, I can say that I have a sense of parity between women and men in the legal profession, thanks to my employer. The study of the issues of the correlation between the quantitative representation of women and men in the legal profession, as well as the peculiarities of their cultural competences, is not only of keen interest to representatives of the legal profession butalso stems from general questions about the gender situation in various fields of human activity.Vivian López Núñez, one of the authors of this special issue, shows that in Paraguay, the judicial system is dominated by men. In Russia, the situation is somewhat different. According to judicial statistics, the proportion of women in the Russian judiciary is 66%.1Moreover, today the Supreme Court is headed by a woman,Irina Podnosova. Women predominate among notaries in Russia. More than 80 per cent of Russian notaries are women.2Women also dominate legal education. According to 2021 data, more women than men are involved in the scientific and educational spheresin the Russian Federation. Overall, in higher education institutions, more than 80% of women are involved in education and pedagogical sciences. While in the humanities, the share of women is more than 65%3.The unequal representation of men and women in the legal profession is due to various factors, primarily historical, economic and socio-cultural reasons. Although legal work has long been the prerogative of men, the granting of full rights to women has enabled them to become involved in legal work.For example, Soviet Russia was one of the first countries to legalize gender equality in the early 20th century. After the October Revolution of 1917, women had access to vocational education, jobs, legal abortion and easy divorce. In the 1990s,Russia also paid a lot of attention to this issue.4Of course, there is always room for improvement. Summarizing foreign and Russian experience, N. Shvedova notes, “social practice has revealed the limited, illusory nature of equality and has come into conflict with life itself. The idea of gender equality has not become an organic part of either the culture of society, human rights, or real state policy.”5Magdalena Łągiewska's remark that “currently, there is a global stereotype on arbitrators such as ‘male, pale and stale’”was very interesting. As far as I can tell, there has been no specific research on how women and men make judgments as judges. This suggests that the design of e-judge algorithms should not take into account how much softer or harsher a judgment should be, as it might seem at first glance. Freeing the AI in court from gender-specific features offers a chance to get a completely impartial judgement in strict accordance with the law.This discussion is actively initiated by William Manga Mokofe, who, in an article in this special issue, shows the importance of addressing gender disparities and promoting inclusivity in the design and implementation of legal and technological systems. My personal experience at the Faculty of Law of Lomonosov Moscow State University, as well as academic research, shows that the number of trained female legal professionals is growing faster than that of male lawyers. The growing supply of lawyers, and consequently, the face of the legal profession,is gradually changing.This allows us to lead projects related to digital jurisprudence (Gergana Varbanova, Elizaveta Zainutdinova), global investment projects (Anna Belitskaya, Yulia Kharitonova), and criminal law assessments in the area of illegal trafficking and the use of weapons (Elona Abasalieva). I thank our authors for supporting the editorial call and sharing their relevant research. I wish our readers a productive and inspiring reading experience, and I look forward to new ideas! Best Wishes,Yulia Kharitonova, LL.D.
The development of technology has led to the fact that a large part of the disputes has transcended national borders and acquired a cross-border character. This requires the study of electronic evidence, in particular electronic documents, as a qualitatively new legal phenomenon, which has its own independent regulation at national and supranational level. In order to understand the concept of "electronic document", a comparison will be made with the conventional, written document, indicating the similarities and differences between the two legal phenomena, as well as the peculiarities inherent only to electronic documents. The article explores the concept of the electronic evidence in conflict resolution through a mixed-methods approach combining systematic literature analysis and comparative case studies. The legal definition of an electronic document is analyzed. Author also concludes on the necessity of a rethinking of the theory of physical evidence in the context of electronic documents.
This essay explores how digital technology serves as a powerful ally for women’s empowerment in Paraguay, particularly in the legal field. Drawing from the author’s experience as the country’s first judge to lead a fully digital court process, the text shows how technological tools help women reconcile professional and domestic responsibilities, while promoting greater access, security, and transparency in the justice system. It also highlights the persistent gender inequalities in Paraguay and argues that, while technology is not a cure-all, it can significantly reduce barriers to real equality—if implemented thoughtfully. The essay uses qualitative reflection to underscore how virtual hearings, remote work, and safety-enhancing tools like panic apps or monitoring bracelets offer concrete benefits to women. However, it also warns that unregulated algorithms risk reinforcing discrimination. The essay concludes with a call for responsible use and regulation of technology to ensure it contributes to lasting change for women in all spheres of life.
In today’s rapidly shifting geopolitical landscape, there is growing concern about weapons based on new physical principles—technologies that remain largely unknown to the public but may pose significantly greater threats than conventional arms. These weapons can have biological effects comparable to radiation exposure, including burns and other damage to living organisms. This article highlights the urgent need to strengthen biological safety measures in the Russian Federation in response to these emerging threats. The scientific novelty lies in the author's proposal of a draft Article 222.3 for the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, aimed at establishing legal liability for the illegal trafficking of such advanced weapons. Additionally, the author offers legislative recommendations to improve the system for recording and addressing crimes related to these technologies. By advancing legal frameworks, the study seeks to enhance protection mechanisms against a new generation of potentially devastating weaponry.
BRICS is a unique multilateral organization spanning Europe, Latin America, Asia, and Africa, playing a key role in shaping a multipolar world. The expanded BRICS+ holds transformative potential by creating alternatives to dominant global systems, such as international currency, the World Bank, and ICSID arbitration. This paper proposes a diversified approach to support member states in achieving synergy for shared economic growth. To reach this goal, the authors applied comparative legal analysis, formal legal methods, retrospection, and legal forecasting. A core finding highlights the need to harmonize key areas of legislation across BRICS+ members—especially antitrust, customs, financial regulation, and investment dispute resolution. Establishing favorable conditions for business partnerships is essential. The paper identifies priority sectors for cooperation—energy, security, innovation, trade, digital transformation, and financial markets—as the foundation for joint development of balanced policies. These efforts aim to align business, antitrust, and investment frameworks, fostering deeper integration and collaboration within the BRICS+ alliance.
