Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly transforming higher education through applications in teaching, assessment, research, and institutional management. However, existing studies remain fragmented and often overlook governance, security risks, and ethical implications. This study presents a systematic review of AI tools in higher education from a security science perspective. Using PRISMA 2020 guidelines, peer-reviewed studies published between 2020 and 2025 were analyzed through thematic synthesis. The findings identify four major categories of AI tools: generative AI, learning analytics systems, intelligent tutoring systems, and administrative decision-support tools. While these technologies enhance efficiency and personalization, they introduce risks related to academic integrity, data privacy, algorithmic opacity, and system dependency. To address this gap, the study proposes a weighted Confidentiality–Integrity–Availability (CIA) model for quantifying AI-related risks, alongside a governance framework for institutional risk management. The results emphasize that effective AI adoption requires robust governance, ethical safeguards, and human-centered oversight. The study contributes a structured and measurable approach to evaluating AI risks in higher education systems.
History teaches us that the victory on the battlefield has always been won by the one who wisely used the available information - information about the opponent, information about one's own forces, information about weather conditions, or spreading misinformation with the aim of deceiving the opponent. It is the same today, not only on the battlefield, but also on the battlefield called the market. The one who most wisely uses the available information and/or outsmarts the opponent or competitor in the market wins. The war in Ukraine is just one more example in a series of examples that confirms this. However, what distinguishes the war in Ukraine from historical wars is the availability of the Internet, the speed of information transmission and the presence of social networks. The biggest advantage of social networks is that most users do not question the veracity of published information - videos, photos and the like. They are an excellent medium for sharing the truth, but also for spreading misinformation.
In the past decade, the northern provinces of Mozambique have experienced a surge in violent radicalisation, particularly in the Cabo Delgado area. Neighbouring Malawi in the same period has remained relatively unaffected by such extremism, despite sharing similar rural and socioeconomic conditions. This paper explores the role of Malawi's primary education system in mitigating the risk of radicalisation. Rather than focusing on a single teacher-training program, the broader impact of educational quality is analysed. It includes teacher availability, teacher professionalism, and school infrastructure. The research argues that although education alone cannot prevent violent extremism, improvements in teacher training and school resourcing play a crucial role in strengthening moral grounding through value-based education and ethical reasoning, enhancing social cohesion by fostering inclusion and civic engagement, and developing critical thinking skills that enable learners to question and resist extremist narratives and ideological manipulation. This study advocates for comprehensive educational reform as part of a broader counter-radicalisation strategy in sub-Saharan Africa.
This study examines how military-centered frameworks alone cannot fully capture the security of the Indo-Pacific; as a result, perception, strategic narratives, and ethical considerations are incorporated as the primary factors that determine regional order. The study examines how global power rivalry creates strategic and interpretive security dilemmas, particularly for Southeast Asian and East Asian states seeking to balance deterrence, alignment, and strategic autonomy, through the lens of the Indo-Pacific as a contested security area. To critically examine contemporary regional security practices and scholarship, the study, grounded in qualitative and theory-driven methods, integrates perspectives from defensive realism, ontological security theory, and norm localization. The study's findings indicate that instability in the Indo-Pacific is sustained not only by material military competition but also by strategic ambiguity, hybrid forms of rivalry, and localized interpretations of threat and legitimacy. The middle powers play a critical role through strategies that combine autonomy, cooperation, and deterrence. Furthermore, it is suggested that the region's natural development occurs gradually through local adaptation processes as opposed to the implementation of uniform or externally imposed standards, which explains the longevity of adaptable and consensus-oriented institutional arrangements. The study concludes that institutional innovation, communication, and ethical restraint should be used in conjunction with traditional deterrence techniques to maintain stability in the Indo-Pacific. This is because ignoring the material or ideational aspects of security will prolong the long-term instability problem in one of the world's most strategically important areas.
The Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 fundamentally altered the European energy and security architecture, exposing the structural vulnerability of the Slovak Republic, which had been among the most energy-dependent member states of the European Union. This article examines the implications of the Russian–Ukrainian conflict for the energy security of the Slovak Republic. As a landlocked Central European country, Slovakia is heavily dependent on external oil and natural gas supplies, historically supplied via pipelines from the Russian Federation. Before the crisis, Slovakia imported approximately 90% of its natural gas and nearly all of its crude oil from Russia, rendering its economy and political system highly susceptible to external shocks. The war in Ukraine thus has disrupted traditional supply chains, exposed vulnerabilities in energy policy, and accelerated the search for diversification and sustainable alternatives. By analyzing the strategic, political, and economic dimensions of Slovak energy security, this study highlights the interplay between domestic policies, EU frameworks, and geopolitical shifts. The article concludes that Slovakia's long-term energy security depends on diversifying supply routes, developing renewable energy sources, fostering regional cooperation, and adapting to EU decarbonization goals.
By early 2026, the Islamic Republic of Iran will have entered a phase of systemic exhaustion marked by the simultaneous collapse of its economic, social, environmental, military, and geopolitical foundations. This article argues that Iran is no longer facing a cyclical crisis but a structural impasse resulting from the convergence of multiple failures: hyperinflation and economic collapse under renewed "snapback" sanctions, nationwide hunger-driven unrest, hydrological bankruptcy, the disintegration of the regional "Axis of Resistance," and the kinetic degradation of Iran's nuclear and missile deterrent during the June 2025 conflict with Israel and the United States. Drawing on recent intelligence assessments, strategic studies, and environmental security research, the analysis demonstrates how the erosion of Iran's "Forward Defense" doctrine and proxy-based deterrence has stripped the regime of its primary tools for external intimidation and internal stabilization. The article further examines the strategic consequences of Iran's isolation following Russia's and China's effective abandonment, revealing the limits of Tehran's long-standing "Look East" strategy. It concludes that the Iranian regime now confronts a stark strategic dilemma between accepting coercive negotiations under highly unfavorable terms or facing the growing likelihood of external kinetic intervention amid escalating domestic unrest. The findings suggest that within the Islamic Republic's existing ideological framework, there is no viable pathway to recovery, marking 2026 as a potential terminal point for Iran's revolutionary model of governance.
This article examines how integrating artificial intelligence (AI) into cruise missile systems, ballistic missiles, and ballistic missile defense (BMD) architectures reshapes deterrence mechanisms and escalation dynamics in regions characterized by persistent rivalry and compressed decision-making timelines, with particular emphasis on South Asia. Building on a typological-comparative approach, the analysis treats AI as a functional layer that reorganizes the sensor–processing–command–engagement chain across different missile technologies, rather than as an autonomous driver of strategic transformation. The study argues that AI-enabled applications—especially in sensor fusion, target discrimination, and decision support—tend to accelerate operational cycles while simultaneously increasing dependence on data integrity, software reliability, and network resilience. In regional contexts such as the India–Pakistan–China strategic triangle, these dynamics amplify existing dilemmas associated with dual-capable systems, counterforce incentives, and missile defense deployments, narrowing margins for error during crises. The findings suggest that technological advances associated with AI frequently coexist with heightened risks of misperception and inadvertent escalation, reinforcing long-standing concerns identified in the missile age while introducing new layers of vulnerability linked to cyber interference and algorithmic opacity. The article contributes to current debates on emerging technologies and strategic stability by situating AI within the structural conditions of regional deterrence and escalation management.
The objective of this paper is to analyze how Croatian online media frame war-related displacement by comparing coverage of refugees linked to the escalation in Ukraine (2022) and the Gaza Strip (2023). The study uses media-framing theory and interprets the coverage through a security-science distinction between two representations: refugees as populations exposed to endangerment, and refugees as potential sources of societal endangerment. This analytic distinction clarifies whether displacement is recognized as a security problem of protection or of control. A comparative content analysis was conducted on N=370 articles from the Index.hr, Jutarnji.hr, Večernji.hr, and Dnevno.hr, collected in the first 30 days after each escalation. The results show a pronounced visibility asymmetry, with Ukraine receiving far more coverage (N=342) than Gaza (N=28). Ukraine-related reporting is overwhelmingly humanitarian, with an occasional security layer focused on governance and institutional capacity. Gaza-related reporting is sparse, still predominantly humanitarian, and more closely anchored in conflict updates. Across both cases, explicit portrayals that cast refugees as a source of societal endangerment are empirically marginal. When “security” appears, it most often refers to administrative risk management or to the broader conflict-security context, rather than to a sustained attribution of threat to refugees.
A complex interplay of political instability, socio-economic fragility, and security challenges has marked the aftermath of the conflict in Afghanistan. Despite substantial international interventions aimed at state-building, the country continues to grapple with deep-rooted issues that impede sustainable development and effective governance especially since the Taliban took over power in 2021. This paper delves into the intricate landscape of Afghanistan's post-war reconstruction following the state-building efforts' failure. The protracted conflict in Afghanistan, spanning decades, has left a devastating legacy of shattered infrastructure, fractured communities, and institutional weaknesses. The failure of state-building initiatives, characterized by a lack of inclusive governance structures, endemic corruption, and weak rule of law, has further compounded the challenges of reconstruction. The absence of a coherent national vision, exacerbated by ethnic and tribal divisions, has hindered efforts to forge a unified trajectory toward recovery. In the wake of this state-building failure, post-war reconstruction efforts must adopt a multifaceted approach that addresses the underlying drivers of conflict and instability. Building resilient institutions that deliver essential services, promote social cohesion, and foster inclusive political participation is imperative. Moreover, initiatives aimed at enhancing economic opportunities, particularly in rural areas where insurgency thrives, are crucial for sustainable peace and development. International actors, including the United Nations, donor countries, and multilateral organizations, play a pivotal role in supporting Afghanistan's reconstruction endeavors. However, the effectiveness of external assistance hinges on alignment with local priorities, capacities, and ownership. Genuine partnerships with Afghan stakeholders, including civil society organizations and grassroots movements, are indispensable for fostering local ownership and legitimacy. Furthermore, the pursuit of a comprehensive peace process, inclusive of all relevant stakeholders, is indispensable for laying the foundations of a stable and prosperous Afghanistan. Reconciliation efforts must be underpinned by justice, accountability, and respect for human rights to ensure lasting peace. In conclusion, post-war reconstruction in Afghanistan demands a nuanced approach that transcends conventional state-building paradigms. By addressing the root causes of conflict, fostering inclusive governance structures, and prioritizing local ownership, reconstruction efforts can pave the way for a more resilient and prosperous future for Afghanistan and its people.
In recent years, cyberspace has emerged as a critical fifth operational domain, where state and non-state actors engage in complex confrontations. Malicious cyber activities frequently target military assets, critical infrastructure, the private sector, citizens, and essential national services, resulting in significant political, social, and economic repercussions. This paper examines the strategic significance of cyberspace in the Russia-Ukrainian war, framing it as a new battlefield in modern warfare. This war exemplifies how activities like cyber-espionage, cyberattacks, hacking, disinformation campaigns, and cyber-surveillance are conducted to achieve military and geopolitical outcomes. The paper examines the frequency, complexity, and impact of these cyber activities during the conflict. Russia has employed state-directed and state-sponsored cyber activities, focusing on espionage, infrastructure disruption, and information manipulation, though often hampered by limited coordination with kinetic operations. Ukraine’s resilient responses, including external support from the private sector, foreign governments, and individual hackers, alongside the formation of a ‘cyber-army’, serve as case studies of resilience to this evolving form of warfare. Lastly, the paper identifies key lessons on the role of cyberspace and information and communication technologies (ICTs) in modern conflicts and highlights the importance of developing resilient strategies.
The implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) in the public sector represents a significant step toward improving governmental decision-making processes. AI systems reduce human errors, enable faster and more accurate analysis of large data volumes, and increase efficiency in crisis situations. A key aspect lies in creating strategic frameworks that foster transparency, accountability, and objectivity within government institutions. This study aims to explore the impact of AI systems on optimizing strategic decision-making and to analyze the strategies that governmental stakeholders may apply for successful implementation. The general hypothesis assumes that the use of AI positively affects strategic decision-making, while the specific hypotheses address the reduction of human errors and the protection of citizens’ privacy as key factors for effective implementation. The theoretical and practical contribution of the study lies in the potential to improve governance practices in the public sector, increase citizens’ trust, and enhance the creation of sustainable public value.
This paper develops an integrative analytical framework for assessing hybrid threats by combining Robert M. Clark’s target-centric (PMESII) approach and Richard J. Heuer Jr.’s cognitive-analytical (ACH) model. The study argues that merging systemic mapping and cognitive safeguards enhances both the external validity and internal reliability of intelligence analysis. Employing a qualitative, theory-driven design, the research contrasts the added value and operational limitations of the Clark–Heuer dual framework across Euro-Atlantic security contexts. Three illustrative cases, the Baltic States, Moldova, and the Israel–Hamas conflict, demonstrate how the model improves attribution confidence, analytical timeliness, and proportionality in hybrid threat assessment. The integration of PMESII and ACH enables real-time validation checkpoints within crisis-monitoring processes, reducing analytical error and reinforcing institutional resilience. Findings confirm that the Clark–Heuer model bridges the gap between academic theory and operational practice, offering a replicable meta-framework that strengthens analytical accountability, adaptability, and democratic legitimacy in security governance.
This paper examines the implications of the Italy-Albania migration protocol for Albania's national and local security. It explores the externalization of EU migration policy, the motivations of the parties behind promoting the protocol, and the consequences of establishing migrant reception/repatriation centers under Italian jurisdiction. The analysis draws on legal and policy documentation, NGO reports, media sources, and academic literature to assess the protocol's implications. By linking externalization of migration to the securitization of Albanian governance, the paper contributes to the emerging literature on how global migration policies reshape domestic security regimes. The content outlines risks stemming from legal ambiguity, limited institutional capacity and preparedness, and social constraints. Special consideration is given to human rights concerns, the risk of migrant exploitation, and the impact on public order. The study argues that inadequate risk assessment and a lack of transparency threaten both the agreement's effectiveness and the credibility of the parties involved. It affirms that protecting migrant rights, promoting the rule of law, and fostering civic engagement are key to mitigating the adverse effects of the protocol and maintaining regional stability. Ultimately, it offers policy recommendations for enhancing transparency, legal accountability, and security preparedness in host countries affected by externalization.
The scope of this scientific article concerns the enhancement of the Resilience of strategic critical infrastructure facilities. The research emphasizes the crucial role of critical infrastructure and the necessity of adequate Resilience as part of its proactive protection approach. Risks and threats to critical infrastructure security are identified in three main categories (cybersecurity, human factors, and natural hazards). Based on the classification, opportunities for resilience enhancement are presented, along with recommendations for future improvements, with a primary focus on the physical and cyber security of critical infrastructure entities. The research is achieved through the application of documentary analysis and theoretical review, providing academic knowledge and practical solutions for the researched area.
The article addresses security science's theoretical and epistemological foundation as an independent and interdisciplinary scientific discipline. The author responds to the growing need to overcome traditional state-centric and normative frameworks of security studies, presenting security science as a dynamically evolving field of science and knowledge with practical application. The article emphasizes the use of qualitative and quantitative scientific methods and the necessity of an interdisciplinary approach that connects knowledge from political science, sociology, law, information technology, and other related fields. The first part analyses the evolution of the security concept and highlights the need for its scientific grasp. The second part focuses on the epistemological and methodological starting points of security science, its subject of research, and the approach to security as both a process and a state. The third part presents arguments for its autonomy and its relationships with other sciences, emphasizing technological and informational dimensions. The fourth part discusses the praxeological dimension of security science and its use in strategic decision-making, crisis management, and education. The conclusion emphasizes the need for methodological standardization and further research in the examined area. Overall, the article represents a relevant contribution to the ongoing discourse on the formation of security science, and at the same time, a call for building a comprehensive and adaptive scientific framework for analysing security phenomena in a dynamically changing globalized, multipolar and fragmented world.
This article examines the gendered dimensions of military and state reconstruction processes in post-independence East Africa, focusing on Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and Rwanda. While postcolonial scholarship has extensively analysed state formation and security governance in Africa, limited attention has been given to the historical and contemporary roles of women in shaping the security architectures of newly independent states. Drawing on a mixed methodological approach that combines historical–analytical and empirical inquiry, this study traces women’s contributions from the liberation movements and early postcolonial armies to their participation in contemporary peacebuilding and post-conflict recovery frameworks. Archival sources, oral histories, and secondary data are integrated with field-based interviews and policy analysis to interrogate how gendered participation reconfigures notions of citizenship, authority, and legitimacy within evolving state and military institutions. The findings reveal that women’s involvement has been simultaneously transformative and constrained expanding the moral and organisational basis of state reconstruction, while remaining circumscribed by patriarchal political orders and securitized governance structures. Comparative insights from the four countries demonstrate divergent pathways of institutionalisation, policy inclusion, and symbolic recognition. By bridging feminist security studies and state capacity theory, the article advances a gendered reinterpretation of post-independence military and governance trajectories in East Africa. It concludes by proposing policy directions for inclusive security sector reform and gender-responsive state-building as integral to sustainable peace and regional stability.
This article analyses Türkiye's evolving role in African peacekeeping and peace support operations. It argues that Türkiye advances a hybrid middle-power model that blends security assistance, development cooperation, and cultural diplomacy. Using a qualitative process-tracing approach across three case studies (Somalia, Libya, Chad), the article applies four analytical lenses—negative/positive peace, hybrid peacebuilding, human Security, and supply-side dynamics—to evaluate how Türkiye operationalises influence through bilateral training bases, TİKA projects, defence exports, and religious/cultural outreach. The findings show that Türkiye's model delivers agility and local resonance but generates structural tensions—dependency risks, centralised project design, inclusivity concerns, and multilateral coordination gaps. The paper concludes with policy guidance for Türkiye, African partners, and multilateral institutions to enhance sustainability and multilateral coherence. The study concludes with policy recommendations to strengthen Türkiye's contribution to sustainable and multilateral peacebuilding frameworks.
This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the evolving role of espionage and intelligence sharing through the lens of securitization theory, with a particular focus on contemporary international conflicts. It demonstrates how espionage, especially in its digital and AI-enabled forms, has become a strategic tool for shaping state behavior, influencing threat perceptions, and guiding international discourse, while historically perceived as secretive and destabilizing. Using qualitative methods, including critical discourse analysis and historical comparative case studies, the study illustrates how intelligence diplomacy—intentional, legally informed, and ethically constrained intelligence sharing—can transform espionage into a stabilizing instrument. Evidence from historical reforms in Greece, contemporary intelligence partnerships such as SIGINT and Five Eyes, and emerging cyber operations supports this argument. The study highlights three key implications: the need for modern legal and normative frameworks to regulate AI and cyber espionage; the potential for trust-based intelligence alliances to function as infrastructures for peace; and the reconceptualization of espionage as a strategic signaling mechanism rather than solely a covert threat. These insights offer practical guidance for pre-conflict planning, international security cooperation, and responsible state conduct in the digital age.
Libya and Turkey has a long history together, so the modern age partnership, common investments, trades are not a surprise. Although it was still shocking for some that Turkey intervened in the Second Libyan Civil War. Turkey was not the only foreign actor but still outside of the circle of the “big players”, the so-called world powers, although it proved to be a game changer of the conflict. No experts questioning that now that Turkey’s intervention had a major influence on the outcome of the conflict. Turkey supported the UN-recognized government of Libya and provided weapons, human resources, know-how for the GNA, and on the other side tried to make business, political deals favorable for Ankara. The main question how did Turkey intervene in Libya and why was it important for Ankara to step into this conflict?
In the article I write about the border protection methods used in Europe, especially in the Carpathian Basin and Hungary. The period covers from the Roman Empire to the Turkish occupation. I present the stages of the creation and development of border fences from a historical perspective, from the creation of the “limes” to the appearance of border fortresses. I deal in detail with the significance and development of border fortresses, as they were already directly built facilities with a border protection function. I also present the impact caused by border fortresses. I describe the results achieved by the use of physical possibilities and human resources in terms of the fights of the European states of that time against each other. I also touch on the efforts against the conquests against Europe. The work does not intend to deal with today's advanced technical border fences, nor does it cover the world wars.
