Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy and a leading cause of cancer-related death in women. Although two-dimensional cell lines and patient-derived xenografts have long served as foundational models in breast cancer research, they fail to fully recapitulate tumor heterogeneity, the native tumor microenvironment, and clinically relevant drug responses. Patient-derived organoids and organoids-on-a-chip platforms overcome these limitations by preserving the genetic, histological, and functional characteristics of the parental tumor. This review summarizes how these models facilitate drug screening, elucidate the mechanisms underlying tumorigenesis and drug resistance, and are integrated with microfluidic technologies to advance personalized therapy. Particular emphasis is placed on traditional Chinese medicine. Patient-derived organoids provide a platform for investigating the multitarget activities of herbal compounds and formulae in patient-derived tissues, while syndrome-stratified models enable the study of pattern differentiation and Fuzheng-Quxie-mediated immune regulation at the cellular level. Finally, the remaining challenges in standardization, throughput, and microenvironmental fidelity are highlighted in the context of clinical translation.
Psoriasis is a chronic, immune-mediated inflammatory skin disease characterized by erythematous plaques covered with silvery scales and often accompanied by pruritus, burning sensations, and pain. It is a systemic inflammatory disorder associated with increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by immune cells. Dendritic cells (DCs), the most potent antigen-presenting cells in the immune system, play an important role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. The limited efficacy of current therapeutic agents may be attributable, at least in part, to an incomplete understanding of pathogenesis or suboptimal therapeutic target selection. Therefore, investigations into DCs not only provide critical insights into the pathogenesis of psoriasis but also identify a promising therapeutic target for disease management. This article describes the phenotype and function of DCs and highlights several natural medicines that regulate the onset and progression of psoriasis by regulating DC maturation and proliferation. DCs, which play a pivotal role in immune regulation, are critically involved in the pathogenesis and progression of psoriasis. Natural medicines offer diverse and effective therapeutic options for patients with psoriasis, exerting their antipsoriatic effects primarily by modulating DC activation and function.
Background: Systemic sclerosis (SSc)-associated interstitial lung disease (SSc-ILD) represents a severe complication of SSc for which effective therapeutic options remain limited. Tetrandrine (Tet), a bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid isolated from Stephania tetrandra S. Moore, has demonstrated antifibrotic and anti-inflammatory activities in diverse models of organ fibrosis. However, its therapeutic efficacy and the underlying mechanisms in the context of SSc-ILD remain incompletely understood. Objective: This study was designed to evaluate the protective effects of Tet against bleomycin (BLM)-induced SSc-ILD in a murine model and to elucidate the potential molecular mechanisms involved. Methods: Male ICR mice were employed to establish a mouse model of SSc-ILD via subcutaneous injection of BLM (1 mg/kg/d) over a duration of 4 weeks. The animals were randomly allocated into 6 groups ( n = 8 per group): control, BLM, pirfenidone (100 mg/kg), and Tet at doses of 20, 40, or 80 mg/kg. Tet was administered intragastrically beginning in the second week. Cutaneous and pulmonary fibrosis were assessed by histopathological examination (hematoxylin and eosin staining and Masson trichrome staining), femtosecond label-free imaging, and hydroxyproline (Hyp) content assay. Serum cytokine levels were quantified via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Network pharmacology analysis was performed to predict Tet-associated targets and signaling pathways. In addition, Western blot and immunofluorescence staining were applied to evaluate the rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (Ras)/rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (Raf)/mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling cascade and the expression of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β). Results: Administration of Tet significantly ameliorated BLM-induced cutaneous fibrosis across all tested dosages, as demonstrated by reductions in dermal thickness, diminished collagen deposition, and decreased Hyp content, with the most marked therapeutic effect observed at the 80 mg/kg dose. In pulmonary tissues, Tet treatment attenuated alveolar wall damage, mitigated inflammatory cell infiltration, and reduced fibrotic lesion formation, accompanied by significant declines in both alveolitis and fibrosis histopathological scores. Quantification via femtosecond label-free imaging and Hyp assay further corroborated the diminished collagen accumulation within lung parenchyma. Concurrently, Tet exerted a pronounced suppressive effect on systemic inflammation, as evidenced by markedly reduced serum levels of interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, TGF-β, and tumor necrosis factor-α. Network pharmacology analysis unveiled 73 intersecting targets common to Tet and SSc-ILD, with significant enrichment identified within the Ras signaling pathway. Subsequent mechanistic investigation demonstrated that Tet substantially downregulated the protein expression levels of Ras, the phosphorylated-to-total Raf ratio, the phosphorylated-to-total MEK ratio, and the phosphorylated-to-total ERK ratio, while concurrently suppressing TGF-β expression in lung tissues. Conclusion: In summary, Tet demonstrates broad-spectrum comprehensive therapeutic activity in the BLM-induced mouse model of SSc-ILD, characterized by the amelioration of both cutaneous and pulmonary fibrosis, the mitigation of systemic inflammatory cascades, and the blockage of the TGF-β-driven Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK signaling cascade. Taken together, these findings highlight the prospective utility of Tet as a viable pharmacological agent for the treatment of SSc-ILD.
Intestinal diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer, share interconnected pathological features characterized by immune-inflammatory dysregulation, disrupted microbiota–host interactions, and impaired epithelial barrier integrity. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) polysaccharides have been reported to exert multifaceted bioactivities relevant to these conditions, including immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, microbiota-regulating, and barrier-protective effects. Their structural properties—including molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, glycosidic linkages, degree of branching, and 3-dimensional conformation—are closely associated with their biological activities and intestinal behaviors, although the specific contributions of individual structural features remain incompletely understood. Moreover, TCM polysaccharides have attracted attention as functional components of intestinal delivery systems because of their mucoadhesive properties, microbiota-responsive degradation potential, and adaptability to disease-associated microenvironmental cues. These properties may contribute to sustained local exposure and improved therapeutic performance. In this review, we summarize current evidence on the structure–activity and structure–delivery relationships of TCM polysaccharides, with a focus on how specific structural features relate to axis-targeted bioactivities and therapeutic outcomes. Finally, we discuss current limitations, including heterogeneity in polysaccharide sources, variability in experimental models, and the scarcity of clinical data, and propose future directions for developing multifunctional polysaccharide-based therapeutics for the management of intestinal diseases.
Isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) is a highly sensitive analytical technique that has been widely applied in recent years for quality control, authenticity identification, and geographic origin tracing of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). The quality and geographic origin of TCM, as important determinants of traditional medicine, directly influence its clinical efficacy. However, existing identification methods still exhibit certain limitations. This article systematically reviews recent advances in the application of IRMS for geographic origin tracing, authenticity discrimination, and quality control of TCM materials. It discusses methodologies for establishing stable isotope ratios and elemental fingerprint profiles, screening key discriminatory markers, and exploring the potential of IRMS within modern TCM quality control systems. Furthermore, this article outlines the technical challenges and future directions of IRMS in TCM research, emphasizing its positive role in promoting the scientific and standardized development of TCM. This review aims to provide theoretical support and technical references for researchers in the field of TCM and related disciplines.
