Urban morphology has long sought to translate the historical, environmental, and built-form structure of settlements into legible units that planning can act on. In practice, however, the connection between morphological analysis and planning has remained limited, particularly in topographically differentiated small towns where standard density controls fail to fully address the distinct character of areas that are formed through topography, historical development, and built form. This paper develops a method for delineating character areas within a historico-geographical framework that is applicable to planning practice. The method synthesizes three groups of analysis: historical development, natural environmental structure, and built form and land use, to delineate different character areas of the urban landscape. The rural-to-urban transect was then applied as a secondary assessment to question the character area classification. The method is applied to Görele, a small coastal town in northeastern Türkiye, selected for its topography and traceable urban development history since the start of the Republican era in 1923. After the synthesis, nine character areas are defined in Görele, each shaped by a specific overlay of development history, natural setting, plot pattern, density, and building form. Non-parametric tests confirm that the areas differ significantly in plot area, ground space index, floor area ratio, and number of storeys. A Spearman rank correlation along the main rural-to-urban sequence shows that plot size decreases and density values increase toward the urban core, but areas with similar density values can differ substantially in plot pattern, street structure, and historical depth. The findings show that character area delineation provides a more differentiated basis for planning than density categories alone and identifies areas where high-density development has occurred without adequate integration with the urban context. In coastal towns shaped by constraining topography and historical development, this approach can guide density control toward more adaptive and contextual urban planning.
Historic urban landscapes often embody a multi-layered city structure, where successive phases of urbanization, transformation, and cultural accumulation coexist within the same physical and symbolic landscape. However, despite continuing conservation initiatives, persistent problems remain: a lack of accessibility in physical, visual, and intellectual terms limits public engagement with the city’s archaeological layers, while a lack of integration, both physical and societal, prevents these invisible periodic layers from being incorporated into contemporary urban planning and public narratives. In response to these challenges, the aim of this study is to analyze current policies and practices for conserving and presenting urban heritage embedded within complex historic fabrics, and its objective is to trace the chronological evolution of İzmir’s urban base to reveal how successive transformations have preserved, obscured, transformed or reinterpreted heritage layers. The research adopts a case study approach focusing on the Kadifekale city walls in İzmir. Its methodology integrates a literature review using historical maps, memoirs, and publications for understanding the case, comparative studies, and international documents regarding effective heritage conservation with fieldwork and evaluative analysis to elucidate on-site conditions and policy contexts. Ultimately, the study proposes an integrated, participatory, and sustainable framework for managing and presenting multi-layered urban heritage within historic cities.
Climate-related sea-level rise and storm surges are progressively impacting coastal cities and their transportation infrastructure, placing increasing strain on mobility in these areas. Since major transportation routes are often located in low-lying coastal areas, assessing their susceptibility to flood-related hazards has become a critical aspect of urban resilience and climate adaptation planning. This research examines the relationship between sea level variability and traffic performance under flood-prone conditions through a case study of a coastal transportation corridor in Izmir, Türkiye. The analytical framework integrates long-term relative sea level observations (1999–2024) with high-frequency traffic volume data collected during rainfall and flood-prone periods in 2023. Long-term sea level variability and seasonal patterns were examined using time-series analysis, while the empirical relationship between sea level variability and traffic flow was analysed using regression and correlation analyses. In addition, exploratory future scenarios were developed to illustrate potential exposure pathways under continued sea level rise. The findings indicate that higher sea level values are associated with modest but statistically significant reductions in traffic volumes along coastal routes. The strength of these associations varies spatially and temporally, with stronger relationships observed at specific locations and during peak traffic periods. The analysis further highlights the vulnerability of coastal transport corridors to flood-induced disruptions and illustrates how corridor-scale analyses can identify localized vulnerabilities that may be masked at broader regional scales. By linking observed traffic responses to sea level variability under flood-prone conditions, the study contributes empirical evidence to the growing literature on climate-resilient transportation systems. These insights provide valuable insights for assessing transportation vulnerability and resilience in urban growth, infrastructure management, and climate adaptation interventions in coastal cities.
Housing Development Administration of the Republic of Türkiye (TOKI), which was established as a public legal entity in 1984 to provide solutions to urbanization and housing problems, became the most important actor in steering urbanization and housing policies with the powers granted to it after 2002. This study analyzes public housing production in Türkiye through TOKI’s housing policies, with a particular focus on the transformation of housing policy that has occurred since 2002. The aim of the study is to examine the economic and spatial impact of public housing investments at the local level, focusing on the Erzincan city center as an exploratory case study, where TOKI has invested the most, and as an example of non-metropolitan provinces. The study attempts to measure the impact of TOKI investments at the local level, both economically and spatially, through a total of seven variables using the descriptive analysis method and the spatial analysis method. The analysis revealed that TOKI manifested exclusively as an earthquake, disaster, or social housing practice, devoid of any discernible direct economic impact. It has been observed that the practices of TOKI exerted a multifaceted influence on the urban spatial development, exhibiting both positive and negative spatial implications.
Temporary housing units are developed to meet the urgent shelter needs emerging after disasters, and container structures are widely used due to their features such as low cost, rapid production, and portability. However, in post-disaster housing processes, quantity and speed often take precedence; the indoor quality and comfort conditions of the provided temporary units are largely ignored. Yet, in the post-trauma recovery processes of disaster victims, the physical quality and indoor spatial characteristics of the space they live in play a determining role. The aim of this study is to evaluate the indoor comfort of temporary housing units in container cities established after the February 6, 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquakes based on user experiences, to reveal the main indoor spatial problem areas, and to develop improvement strategies in line with human-centered interior architecture approaches. The research was conducted in the Osmangazi Neighborhood container city established in the İslahiye district of Gaziantep province. As a method, field observations were conducted along with a survey study involving 90 users. Within the scope of the survey, thermal comfort, visual comfort and lighting, auditory (acoustic) comfort, indoor air quality, and ergonomics and spatial design parameters were evaluated. In the analysis of the obtained data, alongside descriptive statistics, One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the effect of demographic variables on comfort perception. The findings prove that noise, odor, inadequate air conditioning, and spatial limitations reduce the quality of life; ANOVA results prove that as household size increases (especially in families of 6-7 people), comfort satisfaction decreases, and education level is a determining factor in perception. The study contributes to the field by presenting a holistic interior architecture and improvement framework that prioritizes indoor quality and user comfort for post-disaster temporary housing units.
Sustainability has become a significant part of design education, either as an integrated subject or as a central focus in courses with diverse structures and pedagogical approaches. The necessary approaches, tools, and methods have been developed over the past thirty years and continue to evolve. This study examines how design for sustainability can be taught in undergraduate design education. First, background information is established on the scope of design, design for resilience and sustainability, and design education. While the literature focuses primarily on integrating sustainability into design curricula or studios, theoretical courses on design for sustainability in undergraduate design education have not been sufficiently explored. Therefore, this study examines two consecutive semesters of an elective course on design for sustainability, which has both a theoretical and practical structure, through a comparative case study. Course documents and outcomes from two semesters, before and after the course's time plan and evaluation criteria were updated, were analyzed and compared. The comparison focused on the course process and the themes of the final projects, as well as the sustainability goals they aimed to contribute to. The findings reveal that shifting the focus of the course process and outcome criteria from the design ideation phase to the design development phase altered the course outcomes. Furthermore, examining the results obtained by students participating in an international student design competition on sustainable design, using the projects they developed during the course, indicates that competitions improve the quality of project outcomes and student motivation, while also providing validation of design success and sustainability impact. The study can provide information to researchers, instructors, and practitioners working on design for sustainability and design education.
Urban food resilience is often treated as a question of agricultural production, staple stock availability, or emergency food aid. Such interpretations are useful but incomplete for dense metropolitan regions whose food security depends on household coping capacities, neighborhood retail systems, civic redistribution networks, market information, municipal logistics, and inter-regional procurement. This article develops a qualitative policy-design case study of Surabaya, Indonesia, to examine how metropolitan food reserves can be planned beyond conventional stockholding. Using a documentary archive consisting of a 2022 food-reserve focus group discussion report, presentation materials, coordination notes, food-station and food-bank models, local food-security mapping, and urban baseline records, the study codes stakeholder inputs by problem domain, actor mandate, reserve function, spatial scale, and implementation risk. The analysis shows that Surabaya’s favorable food-security classification coexists with structural dependence on external supply, limited urban agricultural land, long market chains, food-quality concerns, storage and budget risks, and fragmented reserve governance. Rather than treating sustainable home-food garden areas, women's farmer groups, family welfare and empowerment groups, city food units, food banks, food stations/municipally owned food enterprises, and inter-regional procurement as separate alternatives, the article reconstructs them as a collaborative food reserve portfolio. The contribution is conceptual and policy-design oriented: it reframes urban food reserves as a multi-scalar governance architecture composed of material stocks, social provisioning, surplus redistribution, city-region logistics, rules, data, and emergency capacities. The model is best read as a pilotable planning framework, not as evidence of program impact, and is intended to help planners translate fragmented food-security instruments into coordinated, monitorable resilience functions.
This study examines the sustainability performance of LEED and BREEAM-certified green buildings in Izmir, province of Türkiye, in terms of certification levels, assessment categories, building types and the environmental strategies implemented. Guided by a conceptual framework based on sustainability, sustainability in architecture, urban sustainability, the green building approach and international certification systems, the research aims to provide a comparative assessment at a local-scale. A qualitative research approach was adopted in the study; document analysis was used as the data collection technique. Data obtained from ÇEDBİK, USGBC, BREEAM and relevant project sources were classified according to certification type, certification level, total score, credit categories, building function and sustainability strategies; and interpreted using descriptive statistics and comparative content analysis. In this respect, the study distinguishes itself from research focusing on a single building type or a single certification category by developing a multi-typology evaluation framework based on the example of Izmir province. The findings show that there are 32 LEED-certified projects in Izmir and four BREEAM certification records associated with three separate buildings or projects. It was determined that performance in LEED-certified buildings is concentrated in the categories of energy and atmosphere, water efficiency, indoor environmental quality, location and transport, and sustainable sites; however, the materials and resources category is under-represented. BREEAM projects, on the other hand, are characterised by the operational performance of existing buildings, environmental management, energy and water conservation, waste control, user comfort and safety measures. Furthermore, it has been observed that sustainability priorities vary according to building function; different strategies are prominent in office, industrial, commercial, residential and transport buildings. The study reveals that green building practices in Izmir are spreading across different building functions; however, the publicly available records examined are insufficient to directly assess the spatial and socio-economic dimensions of this spread. Based on the findings, it is recommended that the strong practices observed in energy and water efficiency be maintained; while sustainability strategies relating to materials and resource management, the operational performance of existing buildings, and building functionality should be developed through local policies and incentives.
Post-industrial urban transformation is widely discussed through brownfield redevelopment, industrial heritage conservation, waterfront regeneration, ecological recovery, and culture-led reuse. However, site-scale studies that evaluate such transformations through measurable spatial indicators remain limited. This study examines the transformation of the SEKA Paper Factory in İzmit, Türkiye, into Sekapark as a case of transition from a Fordist industrial production landscape to a post-Fordist cultural, recreational, ecological, and publicly accessible coastal landscape. The research employs a mixed-method design combining field observation, GIS-based spatial analysis, remote sensing, OSM-based network analysis, DEM-based elevation assessment, and archival interpretation. A total of 280 building units were evaluated through physical-structural, ecological-environmental, transport-accessibility, and heritage-urban integration indicators. These include building typology, use status, building condition and intervention priority, NDVI-based vegetation change, elevation-based coastal vulnerability, public transport proximity, pedestrian connectivity, cultural heritage value, and city-center integration. The findings indicate that transformation has been most strongly consolidated along the waterfront through cultural and recreational functions, while parts of the former production core continue to display transitional use and intervention needs. NDVI analysis for 2000–2025 shows that mean NDVI increased from 0.068 to 0.250 and vegetated surface increased to 36.3% by 2025. Accessibility analyses show a strong pedestrian network and close public transport proximity, although the transport assessment is based on stop buffers rather than full route-based accessibility. The study develops and tests an adapted indicator-based spatial evaluation framework for assessing post-industrial transformation at the site scale.
This study examines how physical environmental characteristics shape user satisfaction in home office settings and whether these evaluations differ according to gender and age variables. The research was conducted within a quantitative research design framework, based on data obtained from 231 participants with active remote working experience. Satisfaction levels were evaluated using descriptive statistics and comparative analyses (One-Way Analysis of Variance-ANOVA). The findings indicate that home office satisfaction does not exhibit a homogeneous structure; rather, it demonstrates significant differences particularly in the dimensions of ergonomic adequacy, spatial organization, technical equipment sufficiency, and perceived work flexibility. Gender-based differences were primarily observed in perceptions of ergonomic and technical adequacy, whereas the age variable exerted a broader and more comprehensive effect, emerging as a determining factor especially in the dimensions of concentration, work management, and equipment adequacy. These results suggest that age may be a more distinctive factor than gender in shaping home office satisfaction. Overall, the study emphasizes that home office design should be evaluated not only in terms of physical comfort and functionality but also within the context of users’ demographic characteristics. The findings provide important implications for interior design strategies, ergonomic support policies, and sustainable remote working practices.
The escalation of conflict in Gaza in October 2023 has intensified a humanitarian crisis marked by mass displacement and the disruption of essential services, producing new forms of spatial inequality and heightened human vulnerability. To understand and analyze this crisis, this study draws on UNRWA situation reports from October 2023 to December 2025. It uses these reports as a lens to examine spatial conditions and how space is organized and transformed during the crisis. In this context, the study develops a spatial reading by identifying and interpreting how space is articulated within these reports. This includes the development of analytical visual representations derived from the data, translating textual and numerical information into spatial patterns across time and regions, and enabling a clearer understanding of displacement dynamics and spatial inequality. In doing so, it not only treats these reports as data but also critically examines how such textual, numerical, and visual outputs construct, represent, or fail to capture spatial inequalities. Through the analysis of these reports, the study identifies five temporal phases. Within each phase, a qualitative approach is adopted to analyze patterns of population movement, shelter overcrowding, and variations in service availability, allowing for a comparison of how crises intensify or recede over time and how specific challenges become more dominant in particular phases. The analysis is structured around three main aspects: access to services, the condition of infrastructure, and the uneven impact of humanitarian aid across different areas. The findings show that repeated displacement, damaged services, and limited aid intensify spatial inequalities over time, with certain vulnerabilities becoming more pronounced in specific phases.
While energy efficiency is increasingly recognised as an integral factor in building design, form-related considerations in Nigeria remain underexplored. This study explores the influence of compactness on building energy demand and carbon emissions using computational simulations tailored for early-stage residential design. Ten distinct building forms consisting of six one-storey, three two-storey and one three-storey building were modelled in SketchUp to collect building entity data and systematically transformed for compactness assessment while maintaining the same volume and floor area. A weather file for location-based energy requirements was generated using Meteonorm, while dynamic thermal modelling, energy performance and carbon emissions were evaluated using EnergyPlus. Python programming was utilised for advanced statistical evaluation, pattern recognition and data visualisation. Findings revealed that single-storey buildings have higher surface-to-volume (SV) ratios and are more energy efficient than more compact, multi-storey counterparts. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) confirmed that building volume accounts for more than 97% of form factor variability, establishing it as the most dominant driver of compactness, while regression analysis reinforced its statistical significance (P-value = 0.038). However, cluster analysis demonstrated that energy efficiency is not solely a function of form factor but is informed by complex interplays between building morphology parameters and façade exposure. Unexpectedly, despite improvements in SV ratios of the transformed buildings, energy demand intensified by up to 30.27%, challenging conventional assumptions that compactness universally enhances energy efficiency. These findings highlight the limitations of compactness as a standalone metric for evaluating energy performance in tropical climates, stressing the need for integrating passive design strategies, such as solar-responsive façades and optimised building orientation, into form optimisation. This study redefines performance assessments for early-stage design by advocating for a more context-sensitive approach to building form in tropical climates.
In the post-2000 period, Istanbul has become one of the most intense cases of neoliberal spatial restructuring in the developing world, driven by state-market alliances that systematically opened non-commodified spaces to real estate capital. This article argues that such transformations operate not only in economic terms but also as mnemonic policies: the erasure of collective memory is a structural mechanism through which hegemonic power generates docile space and undermines counter-hegemonic potentials. The article distinguishes two modalities of erasure across two cases of urban transformation. The first is aggressive erasure, exemplified by Fikirtepe, where the accelerated application of Law on the Transformation of Areas Under Disaster Risk outpaced community resistance and made the continuity of embodied and collective memory impossible. The second is aesthetic recoding, operating in the transformation of Bağdat Avenue in Kadıköy, where the gradual replacement of neighbourhood-based social life by luxury apartments and commercial consumption spaces enacts what Neil Leach calls 'aesthetic anaesthesia'. Against this backdrop, the article treats the photographic practice of Murat Germen - a photographer and academic who holds the most extensive archive of Istanbul's contemporary transformation - as its primary object. Drawing on the counter-archive - the photographic refusal of the terms of official representation - the article examines Germen’s counter-memorial narratives across both sites and their public resonance. His Fikirtepe documentation captures the threshold at which anamnesis remains possible; his Bağdat Avenue work reveals the gap between spatial promise and eroded identity. Employing Gillian Rose's qualitative visual methodology alongside an analysis of Germen's reception across institutional contexts, the article finds that photographic counter-memory constitutes a meaningful but constrained form of ‘urban resilience’ - understood not in its technocratic sense of 'bouncing back', but as the social capacity of communities to sustain contested memory under conditions of imposed transformation - a formulation that draws on critical resilience scholarship. The article's primary theoretical contribution is a distinction between two functions of photographic counter-memory, whose efficacy is conditioned by the modality of erasure each confronts. A testimonial function - the preservation of evidence for future challenge - operates robustly across both erasure modalities, while a mobilizing function - the generation of counter-hegemonic solidarity - depends on the legibility of loss that each modality of mnemonic erasure permits. Photographic counter-memory does not reverse physical transformation, but it sustains the social capacity to recognize, archive, and contest ongoing erasure.
Since the 1980s, sustainability has become a central theme in industrial and environmental policies, with growing criticism of linear production systems and increasing emphasis on circular production. Unlike linear systems, which rely on one-way resource flows and generate waste, circular models promote reuse, repair, and recycling, aiming to preserve materials and reduce ecological impact. Within this framework, industrial ecology proposes a closed-loop approach that combines economic growth with environmental sustainability and has laid the conceptual foundation for the circular economy. Highlighted in EU industrial policies, this paradigm seeks to minimize waste and extend the life cycle of raw materials. This study examines the transformation of industrial policies in Turkey within the framework of “industrial ecology” and the “circular economy”. Since 2010, initiatives centered on industrial symbiosis have been introduced in Turkey, strengthening awareness of a production model based on by-product exchange among producers. During this period, practices were implemented in two main categories: the development of regional industrial symbiosis schemes and the transformation of existing Organized Industrial Zones into Eco-Industrial Parks. After 2020, under the influence of the EU Green Deal, the circular economy discourse has become the dominant narrative in policy documents. By analyzing policy documents over the past 15 years, the study demonstrates both the growing institutionalization of circularity and its structural weaknesses. Notably, insufficient attention to spatial dimensions and the risk of reducing circularity to bureaucratic waste trading emerge as critical challenges. Achieving genuine environmental sustainability requires reframing the circular economy beyond technical or economic efficiency, integrating ecological principles, and embedding it holistically within spatial, social, and governance contexts.
The production of space is a multidimensional and complex process that encompasses emotion, knowledge, intuition, foresight, and experience. When designing, architects consider interpersonal interactions and human-space relationships to create scenes suitable for the anticipated actions and experiences within a space. People, in turn, are the ones who experience spaces. Many researchers and architects focus on human-space interaction in architecture. Among these architects, the SelgasCano architecture office, founded in 1998 by Jose Selgas and Lucia Cano, places user experience at the center of its designs, aiming to create spaces that are not only functional but also places that users embrace and enjoy. Within this scope, the literature on human–space interaction was reviewed, and four key themes related to user experience in SelgasCano’s architectural approach were identified. Four projects in which SelgasCano was considered to reflect these themes most clearly (Silicon House, SelgasCano Architecture Office, Second Home London Office, and Second Home Hollywood Office) were examined. The study reveals that SelgasCano systematically integrates context, biophilia, material, and color as core design components that frame and enrich user experience across their architectural projects. The findings reveal that SelgasCano’s architecture positions user experience at the core of the design process, integrating sensory, emotional, and cognitive dimensions to create dynamic and engaging environments. The study concludes that user-centered and biophilic design strategies significantly contribute to enhancing spatial quality and human–space interaction. In this regard, examining and further developing design approaches that prioritize user experience is of critical importance for generating innovative and human-centered solutions in architectural practice.
In recent years, cities have faced increasing pressure from overlapping disasters, exposing critical weaknesses in existing spatial, institutional, and social systems. Numerous decisions made throughout the history of cities are considered in the context of reinforcing the cohesion and adaptability of institutions and communities. Resilient cities adapt to environmental, economic, and social dynamics, demonstrating their ability to withstand pressures and evolve to fulfill various roles over time. Although many crises offer valuable lessons for enhancing urban resilience, this study focuses on how the concurrence of multiple crises alters spatial configurations and usage dynamics within urban environments. The study explores how cities respond and adapt to dual crises, focusing on the intersection of seismic events and pandemic conditions. Using a qualitative, phenomenological research design, the study analyzes official disaster regulations, emergency response plans, media documentation, and in-depth interviews with individuals who experienced both an earthquake and a pandemic simultaneously. The research centers on spatial transformations and shifting urban needs in the aftermath of the October 2020 earthquake, while also reflecting on the broader implications of the February 2023 disaster. Findings highlight the complex, layered nature of urban vulnerability under concurrent crises, emphasizing the need for integrated planning approaches, adaptable public spaces, and cross-sectoral coordination. This paper contributes to the ongoing rethinking of urban resilience strategies by offering grounded insights into the lived realities of navigating dual crises.
In this paper, we illustrate the growth and spatial distribution of art galleries in Istanbul at the beginning of the 21st century. Previous studies have attributed the decentralization of urban activities from the old CBD to sub-centers as a result of population growth, economic and transportation development, and globalization in Istanbul. The present study begins by explaining the spatial distribution of Istanbul’s cultural infrastructure within the urban macroform, followed by an investigation into the emergence and development of art galleries within the cultural ecosystem, providing a spatial focus as well as a historical context. We then analyze the growth and spatial distribution of art galleries from 2000 to 2022, with reference to the spatial characteristics of the cultural infrastructure and CBD in Istanbul’s macroform. The results indicate that over two decades, the number of art galleries increased, with a tendency toward centralization in the historical CBD of the city, while decentralization also occurred at the borders of the historical CBD. Additionally, new clusters of art galleries emerged following the extension of the CBD and singular redevelopment projects specializing in cultural and artistic functions. This study contributes to the literature on Istanbul’s urban growth and cultural studies by presenting a spatial assessment of the art galleries, which is a relatively underexplored component of cultural infrastructure. Additionally, by analyzing the relationships between the galleries and the urban macroform, specific revitalization and redevelopment projects, and cultural policies, the study highlights the role of art galleries within urban growth processes and the cultural infrastructure.
Today, cemeteries are gaining importance as potential open spaces due to the growth of cities and the increase in construction densities. Especially old cemeteries that have completed their function can be integrated into urban life as open-green spaces. Cebeci Asri Cemetery is an old cemetery that has completed its function as a burial space. As the first modern cemetery in the history of the Republic and an architectural competition project, it is an important area with cultural, social and historical value. Important bureaucrats of the Republican era, many poets, writers, journalists and artists who shaped society rest in this cemetery. It is also one of the limited number of green areas in the city. The purpose of this article is to develop a landscape-focused integration model that addresses spatial re-functionalization and digitally supported cultural route design at Cebeci Asri Cemetery. The cemetery area was evaluated as an open-air museum and a cultural route covering important figures of the history of the Republic was created. A mobile application was also developed for the culture route. Original structures such as ossuaries and namazgahs, which are inactive and vacant in the area, were also evaluated in this context and included in the usage scenario. As a result, this study presents an alternative approach for the urbanization of an old cemetery isolated from the city. Although they are early structures, solutions have been developed to preserve the namazgah and ossuary structures and transfer them to the future. It is envisaged that this study will create an idea/guide for urban administrations.
The educational potential of games has increasingly attracted attention within architectural pedagogy, fostering investigations into game-based learning approaches. Among these, LEGO has gained prominence in both physical and digital formats, offering unique yet complementary contributions to design education. Physical LEGO sets strengthen students’ manual dexterity, three-dimensional reasoning, and confidence by engaging them in tangible construction processes. Virtual LEGO platforms, in contrast, advance technological literacy, spatial visualization, and digital exploration, thereby preparing students for the demands of contemporary design environments. This study examines the role of both physical and virtual LEGO modules in architectural and interior design education through a comparative analysis. Student groups from different levels were tasked with reconstructing a pre-designed architectural plan using both formats. Upon completion, participants completed a structured questionnaire designed to evaluate their learning experiences, perceived challenges, and skill development. Data were analyzed using SPSS to identify statistical relationships between the two approaches. Findings revealed significant correlations between the modules, indicating their complementary nature in fostering spatial literacy and design skills. Physical LEGO modules were particularly effective in promoting hands-on engagement, efficiency, and confidence, while virtual modules enhanced creativity in digital environments and cultivated a sense of achievement. The comparison demonstrates that rather than competing, physical and digital formats enrich architectural pedagogy by addressing different dimensions of the design process. By situating LEGO within the broader discourse of game-based learning in architecture, this study underscores the importance of integrating traditional tactile methods with emerging digital tools. Such integration not only bridges the gap between physical and virtual realms but also provides a rational perspective on contemporary educational challenges in an increasingly digitized world. Ultimately, the results highlight the potential of LEGO to serve as a versatile pedagogical medium that cultivates both foundational design skills and adaptability to future technological contexts.
In the age of mass migration, displacement, and the increasing number of refugees and migrants, more people are forced to leave their homelands every day. Refugees who are compelled to abandon their countries become disconnected from their homeland, history, and identity, losing their sense of belonging and often having no place to return to. One significant historical example of "displacement and place-making" is the population exchange between Anatolian Greeks and Turks in Greece, formalized by the "Convention and Protocol on the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations" signed on January 30, 1923. Those who were forced to leave their homelands struggled to establish a sense of belonging in their newly settled regions. The population exchange and the consequent forced displacement, as well as the efforts of individuals to construct a new sense of place and belonging, have been reflected in cinema. This study examines the Greek film Rembetiko, the Turkish film My Grandfather’s People (Dedemin İnsanları), and the Turkish-Greek co-production Roza of Smyrna (İsmail ve Roza), all of which address the population exchange. The analysis focuses on the spatial representation of displacement in cinema, spatial memory, and the sense of belonging, particularly in relation to the places abandoned by those who experienced the exchange and their initial impressions of the new settlements. The study also examines the spatial factors influencing place-making and the post-memory transmission of the exchange experience to subsequent generations. This study aims to reveal how forced displacement—a critical, contemporary, social, and political crisis—is echoed in cinema, shedding light on the places that were abandoned and reconstructed by displaced individuals.
