Cooked turkey ham is a widely consumed ready-to-eat meat product in which nitrite plays an important role in safety and quality. However, growing health concerns and regulatory constraints have driven efforts to reduce nitrite use. This study evaluated the effect of reducing nitrite levels from 150 to 119 ppm on the microbiological safety and physicochemical stability of cooked turkey ham during refrigerated storage. Microbiological quality was monitored at 7-day intervals, including total viable counts (TVC), lactic acid bacteria (LAB), Enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli. TVC and LAB remained below 107 CFU/g until day 28 but reached unsatisfactory results on day 35 (108 CFU/g), whereas the remaining microbial groups remained below the detection limit throughout storage, thus supporting a commercial shelf life of 28 days. Sulphite-reducing Clostridium spores, Salmonella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes were not detected in any samples. Challenge tests with Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium sporogenes were conducted under refrigerated storage and temperature abuse conditions (8 °C) for up to 35 and 264 days, respectively. The reduced-nitrite formulation limited the growth of L. monocytogenes, remaining below the 0.5 log CFU/g threshold at 4 °C but showing a transient increase above this threshold at 8 °C, and prevented detectable vegetative outgrowth of C. sporogenes under the tested conditions. Colour parameters showed no significant differences between the standard and reduced-nitrite formulations (P > 0.05). Physicochemical parameters showed small changes during storage time but remained within the acceptable ranges, with pH values ranging from 6.0 to 6.3, water activity (aw) ranging from 0.94 to 0.96. Overall, the results indicate that reducing sodium nitrite to 119 ppm in the tested cooked turkey ham formulation is feasible without compromising microbiological safety or technological functionality during the defined 28-day commercial shelf life under the conditions evaluated.
Excessive consumption of added sugars has increased demand for food ingredients that reduce glycemic and caloric load while maintaining sweetness, bulk, processing functionality, and consumer acceptability. Rare sugars are low-abundance monosaccharides with compound-specific technological and physiological properties. This review critically synthesizes current evidence on their natural occurrence, structural chemistry, production, metabolic fate, food applications, safety, regulatory status, and translational potential. D-allulose and D-tagatose are among the most extensively studied rare sugars for food reformulation. Both provide sugar-like bulk and sensory functionality, lower energy contributions than sucrose, and evidence for attenuated postprandial glucose and insulin responses. Other rare monosaccharides, including D-allose, L-arabinose, L-xylulose, L-ribose, and D-sorbose, show distinct effects on digestion, microbial utilization, enzymatic recognition, and food-matrix behavior. Related polyols are chemically distinct and are considered only as relevant technological or physiological comparators. Rare sugars may influence browning, hydration, crystallization, fermentation, starch behavior, texture, and flavor development. Advances in enzymatic conversion, immobilized biocatalysis, microbial cell factories, synthetic biology, and waste-stream valorization have improved production feasibility. Nevertheless, conversion efficiency, purification requirements, production cost, and industrial scale-up remain important constraints. Human evidence is currently strongest for acute or short-term postprandial glycemic responses and gastrointestinal tolerability. In contrast, many findings concerning appetite regulation, cardiometabolic mechanisms, and gut-microbiota interactions remain dependent on animal, cellular, ex vivo, or mechanistic studies. These evidence categories should therefore not be interpreted as equivalent indicators of clinical efficacy. Overall, rare sugars represent promising ingredients for sugar reduction and functional-food development. Their successful translation requires compound-specific safety evaluation, realistic serving-size assessment, matrix-specific formulation studies, harmonized regulation, and longer-term controlled human studies.
IntroductionThe current research aims to design and develop encapsulated beads (Ebs) loaded with Lactobacillus reuteri (L. reuteri), beetroot, and Vitamin B12.MethodsThe Ebs were prepared using the ionic gelation method and optimized via factorial design. The prepared Ebs were optimized for their particle size, drug entrapment efficiency, and structural analysis. Moreover, the Ebs were evaluated for their drug release under gastric and intestinal conditions.Results and DiscussionThe particle size of Ebs ranges from 1.15 to 1.20 mm. The % drug entrapment for Vitamin B12, Beetroot, and L. reuteri were 97.09% ± 3.25%, 87.9% ± 5.85%, and 87.5% ± 4.97%, respectively. The viability of L. reuteri in Ebs was 4.2 × 108 Cfu/g. SEM images revealed round-shaped Ebs. FTIR spectra revealed the successful incorporation of drugs within the Ebs. The cumulative release of Vitamin B12, Beetroot, and L. reuteri from Ebs was 87.02% ± 5.67%, 78.4% ± 7.87%, and 87.5% ± 6.68%, respectively, over 24 h, indicating sustained release profiles. In contrast, the marketed sublingual formulation of Vitamin B12 showed a rapid release of 70.23% ± 5.68%, within 2 h. Results confirm the successful preparation and optimization of L. reuteri- Vitamin B12 and beetroot-loaded Ebs, which may be a promising approach to addressing Vitamin B12 deficiency.
IntroductionFood safety risk assessment requires predictive models that not only achieve high accuracy but also provide reliable uncertainty quantification to support regulatory decision-making. This study presents a comprehensive machine learning framework that integrates Mondrian conformal prediction with post hoc probability calibration for food safety risk classification using the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) database. The task is framed as a binary classification problem, predicting whether an RASFF notification is serious or not.MethodsThe proposed framework addresses three critical challenges in food safety prediction: class imbalance handling through the synthetic minority oversampling technique (SMOTE) combined with class weighting, probability miscalibration correction via Platt scaling, and distribution-free uncertainty quantification through group-conditional conformal prediction. The framework was evaluated on 22,643 RASFF notifications from 2019 to 2025 using a chronological training/calibration/test split.ResultsThe eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)-based framework achieves an accuracy rate of 0.784, a Cohen’s kappa of 0.296, and a Matthews correlation coefficient of 0.297. The Mondrian conformal predictor attains 90.3% overall coverage, with an average prediction set size of 1.216, while Platt scaling reduces the expected calibration error by 84%, from 0.267 to 0.043. A multitrial resampling analysis (5,000 random calibration/test splits) confirms that mean per-region coverage converges to the nominal 90% level, while single-split deviations in the smallest regions reflect finite-sample variance. Counterfactual explanation generation additionally provides actionable insights into risk factor modifications.DiscussionThe framework offers a decision-support prototype for food safety risk assessment that couples calibrated probabilities with distribution-free uncertainty quantification. Given the moderate agreement beyond chance and the reduced minority-class performance, the framework is positioned as a decision-support prototype requiring further validation before regulatory deployment. If restructuring is not preferred by the production team, the existing abstract may be retained as-is; the content of both versions is equivalent.
Fermented soymilk is a widely consumed plant-based beverage, and fermentation enhances its nutritional and functional properties. However, the influence of soybean seed characteristics on the quality and functionality of fermented soymilk remains insufficiently understood. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of three soybean varieties-food-grade (Karune), low-KTI (V23), and black (VL-Bhat-65)- on the nutritional, functional, technological, and sensory properties of soymilk fermented with Lactobacillus acidophilus 1132. All soybean varieties supported bacterial growth and lactic acid production. Fermentation significantly (p < 0.05) improved the nutritional and functional quality of soymilk by reducing raffinose-family oligosaccharides (RFOs) and antinutritional factors (ANFs), while enhancing isoflavone bioconversion and phenolic content. Black soybean soymilk exhibited the highest protein and mineral contents and viscosity; food-grade soymilk showed the greatest antioxidant activity, lowest phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor activity, and highest sensory acceptability, whereas low-KTI soymilk demonstrated the greatest conversion of glucoside to aglycone isoflavones. These findings demonstrate that soybean variety significantly influences the quality and functionality of fermented soymilk and provide a scientific basis for selecting appropriate soybean varieties for the development of nutritionally enhanced fermented plant-based beverages.
Edible coatings have emerged as sustainable preservation systems capable of extending the shelf life of foods by reducing moisture loss, regulating gas exchange, limiting oxidation, and inhibiting microbial deterioration. This scoping review aimed to map recent scientific advances, technological trends, and application patterns in the use of edible coatings for food preservation. The review followed PRISMA-ScR guidelines and included records retrieved from Web of Science and Scopus. From 13,004 initial records, 1,588 studies were included in the bibliometric analysis, and 40 representative studies were selected for qualitative synthesis. The findings showed a marked increase in scientific production after 2015, with China, India, and the United States as central contributors to global collaboration networks. The thematic structure of the field was dominated by biopolymer-based coatings, particularly chitosan, alginate, pectin, gelatin, starch, whey protein, carrageenan, and composite lipid matrices. Recent studies also showed a transition from passive barrier coatings toward active and multifunctional systems incorporating essential oils, plant extracts, phenolic compounds, bacteriocins, nanoemulsions, and antimicrobial agents. The strongest evidence was found for fruits and vegetables, followed by meat and fishery products, while dairy, bakery products, and eggs remain less explored. Overall, edible coatings contributed to microbial control, physicochemical stabilization, sensory preservation, and shelf-life extension. However, further research is needed on safety, scalability, consumer acceptance, regulatory compliance, and performance under industrial conditions.
IntroductionDigital twins in food production increasingly support quality monitoring, traceability, and operational decision-making. However, a digital twin can only be as reliable as the quality-control evidence used to update its state. In many food-production settings, laboratory quality information is stored in laboratory information management systems (LIMS), supplier certificates, or external laboratory reports, while blockchain-based food studies mainly focus on supply-chain traceability rather than verified laboratory event integration. This paper proposes a minimal Solana-based hash-anchoring framework that allows food-production digital twins to verify whether LIMS-compatible quality-control evidence is original, modified, or missing before accepting it as batch quality-state evidence.MethodsLaboratory data remain off-chain, while Solana stores only event identifiers, cryptographic hashes, and minimal metadata. The framework is evaluated using an anonymized bakery flour quality-control case based on two flour certificates and generated LIMS-like events derived from the same field structure. Experiments evaluate tamper detection, anchoring and verification latency, benchmark repeatability, and digital twin state classification.ResultsIn the primary 1,000-event local-validator benchmark, Solana per-event anchoring detected 100% of post-validation modifications under a local-store compromise threat model, with mean anchoring latency of 474.7862 ms per event and mean verification latency of 1.5945 ms. A repeat 1,000-event run produced the same order of overhead, with mean anchoring latency of 472.2501 ms and mean verification latency of 1.2591 ms. Local hash and append-only log baselines were faster, but failed to provide external tamper-evident evidence under local reference compromise.DiscussionUnder the evaluated conditions, Solana hash anchoring provides an external integrity layer for verified quality-state updates in food-production digital twins, rather than a performance optimization.
Polyphenols are among the most versatile secondary metabolites of plants, with significant therapeutic potential, including anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, and antioxidant properties. However, limited bioavailability impedes their clinical application. These improvements have led to the use of synthetic stabilizers, toxic solvents, and high-energy inputs, raising concerns about the sustainability, scalability, and environmental impact of these techniques. The bioavailability of polyphenolic bioactives is an emerging area of interest, and green strategies have been developed to address it. Recently, a series of carrier-free delivery systems have also been developed, such as edible colloidal architectures, biopolymer nanoparticles, self-assembled nanostructures, and protein/polysaccharide conjugate nanocarriers, which can enhance solubility, stability, gastrointestinal performance, and release profiles. This review offers a critical analysis of approaches to improve polyphenol bioavailability, as well as recent developments in sustainable formulation design, physicochemical characterization, and translational considerations. This review critically examines the potential, limitations, and future research directions for developing safe, scalable, and environmentally friendly polyphenol delivery systems for therapeutic applications.
Ghee has a distinctive techno-functionality to be used as a cooking/ frying medium. Ghee is relatively stable at the higher temperature due to its higher smoke point as compared with conventional cooking oils, thereby preventing thermal breakdown when exposed to high temperature. Due to higher saturated fatty acid composition, the chances of lipid oxidation during cooking are lower for ghee. Hence, the ideal fatty acid composition, grainy texture, rich nutty flavour, excellent taste makes it a suitable cooking medium. Consumption of ghee is also associated with many health benefits due to presence of conjugated linoleic acid, fat soluble vitamins, medium chain fatty acids, essential fatty acids, short chain fatty acids and antioxidants. The present review focuses on understanding the techno-functional properties of ghee making it suitable as a cooking medium, chemistry of ghee in terms of fatty acid profile, comparative assessment of ghee and conventional oil as a cooking medium. The review will be of great importance to the food scientist and the food entrepreneurs presently working in this domain.
The fruit waste and food processing residues are rich in pectin that can be valorized into pectin-based packaging materials aligned with sustainable for circular economy standards. Agro-industrial waste is earning consideration as a potential pectin sources. This review synthesizes the recent progress across the pectin’s green processing technologies for the extraction, fabrication methods and sustainability packaging credentials. The development of pectin-based films are focused on the physiochemical properties such as mechanical, barrier, flexibility, water resistance and bioactive functionalization for excellent film formation in sustainable packaging. This approach aligns with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) emphasizing on the responsible consumption and production of the sustainable product. Despite the prominent progress, challenges remain in the large-scale production and extraction process that safeguards the fabricated film competitiveness compared to conventional plastics, and circumnavigating market regulations. The convergence of NTFPs (Non-Timber Forest Products) utilization towards the fruit waste pectin valorisation for bio-based packaging application has also been approached. By addressing the crises, research is deliberately looking on improving packaging performance through multi-component blends of polymers, nanoparticles, plant derived compounds and NTFPs derived forest polysaccharides to enhance the safety and food wastage reduction. The synergy of technological, conservational, and lucrative drivers highlights in this review on the potential of pectin-based green packaging as a flagship key for sustainable materials and the modulations to a green circular economy.
The retort process remains one of the fundamental thermal technologies used to ensure the microbiological safety and extended shelf life of low-acid meat foods. However, traditional static retorting methods are often associated with high heat stress, nutrient destruction, and poor sensory qualities in the final products. Recent advancements in thermal engineering, food packaging technologies, and combined preservation methods have significantly improved the performance of retorted meat products. This paper aims to present recent developments in the retort preservation of meats. Key innovations in the field include Variable Retort Temperature Processing (VRTP), agitated retort systems, and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)-enabled process modelling, all of which help prevent over-processing while ensuring commercial sterility. Advances in packaging such as high-barrier laminates, retortable semi-rigid trays, oxygen-scavenging packs, and new recyclable mono-material systems—enhance protection against oxidative instability and flavour degradation. At the ingredient level, antioxidants, hydrocolloids, and fat-stabilization systems help reduce lipid oxidation, texture loss, and colour deterioration. The development of new technologies like Microwave-Assisted Thermal Sterilization (MATS), ohmic heating, super-heated steam technology, and intelligent retort control systems is the next level of thermal preservation techniques. It can be seen from the present literature that a combination of VRTP, CFD-based design of processes, smart sensor based retort systems, and high barrier packaging is the best possible way to obtain the desired results of retorted meat products.
IntroductionThe present study was undertaken to assess the quality of sticks incorporated with poultry slaughter byproducts under aerobic and vacuum packaging conditions at ambient temperature.MethodsSticks, Control (C), T1 (6% chicken liver paste), T2 (4.5% chicken heart paste), and T3 (3% chicken heart paste +3% chicken liver paste) were stored at ambient temperature (25 °C ± 2 °C) for 90 days under aerobic and vacuum packaging conditions.Results and DiscussionThe pH increased in all formulations during storage. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values increased progressively and significantly (p < 0.05) at each storage interval, indicating lipid oxidation. Similarly, under both packaging conditions, free fatty acid (FFA) content and peroxide value (PV) increased significantly (p < 0.05) across all samples during storage. Sensory attributes, including appearance, flavour, tenderness, juiciness, and overall acceptability, declined gradually across all samples; however, the scores remained within acceptable limits at the end of the storage period. The lipid oxidation parameters were lower in vacuum-packaged products than in aerobically packaged products. The better sensory attributes were maintained in vacuum packaging conditions as compared to aerobic packaging conditions.
IntroductionProbiotic edible films represent a promising strategy for developing functional food packaging that combines food preservation with the delivery of beneficial microorganisms. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) is commonly incorporated into starch-based films to improve flexibility; however, its effect on the survival of entrapped probiotics remains poorly understood. This study evaluated the mechanical, structural, and survival characteristics of starch-based edible films containing different proportions of CMC and Lactobacillus rhamnosus.MethodsThree formulations were prepared: starch, starch/CMC (60:40), and starch/CMC (50:50), with and without L. rhamnosus. Mechanical properties, color, microstructure, and probiotic survival were evaluated during storage at 5 °C and 22 °C for 24 days.ResultsStarch films exhibited greater thickness, puncture force, and tensile strength, whereas CMC-containing films showed higher elongation values. The incorporation of L. rhamnosus increased film thickness and reduced puncture force, tensile strength, and elongation in all formulations. Atomic force microscopy revealed a more homogeneous distribution of bacterial cells in starch films, while CMC-containing films exhibited rougher surfaces and greater pore formation. Starch films stored at 5 °C showed the highest probiotic stability during storage, whereas CMC-containing films exhibited reductions of approximately 2 log CFU/g after 24 days.DiscussionThese findings indicate that increasing the CMC fraction improves film flexibility but may compromise the survival of L. rhamnosus during storage.
IntroductionProtein bars are widely consumed worldwide, primarily due to their nutritional properties and convenience. This study investigated the effects of glycerol and water addition on the physicochemical and textural properties of protein bars.MethodsFour formulations were developed with two levels of glycerol (3% and 3.5%) and with or without added water (0% or 2%).Results and DiscussionMoisture and ash contents were not significantly affected by reformulation, however, glycerol addition significantly reduced aw below the threshold for microbial growth, ensuring product stability. Sensory evaluation revealed that the addition of water decreased firmness and crispiness, while increasing stickiness and chewiness. Overall, the findings emphasize the functional role of glycerol as a humectant and its influence on the textural profile, while also demonstrating that water addition, although contributing to softness, may negatively affect consumer preference for protein bars. These results provide valuable insights for optimizing protein bar formulations to enhance textural quality and consumer acceptance.
This Data Report describes the Batangas Liberica Coffee Bean Morphology Image Dataset with Derived Morphometrics (BaLiCoM), a fixed and versioned dataset of individual Liberica coffee beans from Batangas Province, Philippines. The Zenodo v1 archive contains 4,000 raw single-bean images, 4,000 standardized 256 × 256 images, 4,000 segmentation masks, 4,000 morphometric records, and 4,000 metadata records linked through stable image identifiers. Beans were manually harvested from eight balanced farm/location groups in Rosario, San Juan, Padre Garcia, Taysan, Malvar, Sto. Tomas City, Lipa City, and Nasugbu between June 7 and 20 December 2025. Images were acquired under controlled white-background and diffuse-light conditions to support reproducible foreground segmentation and two-dimensional shape measurement. The archive combines visual records, processed masks, and tabular descriptors, including pixel-based area, perimeter, eccentricity, solidity, and centroid coordinates. The dataset is intended for controlled-background segmentation benchmarking, descriptive morphometric workflows, and the development of reproducible quality-control methods. Because the archive does not document a physical calibration target, area and perimeter are reported as pixel-based variables and should not be interpreted as direct physical dimensions.
BackgroundTable grapes (Vitis vinifera var. Crimson Seedless) are highly susceptible to post-harvest deterioration, primarily due to weight loss, stalk browning, and spoilage by microorganisms like moulds. This study investigates the use of indirect in-package surface cold plasma within a passive Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) to enhance microbial control and extend shelf-life of table grapes.MethodologyGrapes were sealed in LDPE bags and treated with cold plasma for 3, 7, or 10 s (3S, 7S, 10S) and stored at 0 °C for 18 days. Ozone generation and its subsequent decomposition within the headspace were monitored. The most important physico-chemical and physiological parameters including headspace gas composition, weight loss, berry and stalk colour, texture, and microbial populations were systematically assessed at days 0, 3, 12, and 18.ResultsCold plasma generated high initial ozone concentrations (up to 1050 ppm for 10S) that degraded within 60 min. Treatments significantly reduced yeast and psychrotrophic bacteria counts compared to controls until day 12. While headspace gas composition (O2 and CO2) remained stable across treatments, a significant decline in sensory score for aroma and flavour was observed in treated samples primarily due to a pungent off-odour that persisted during consumption.ConclusionIn-package cold plasma represents a rapid, residue-free sanitization method. Although the treatment did not significantly alter the internal quality or metabolism of the berries, results suggest an interaction with the packaging material. Therefore, while the technology is effective for microbial reduction, the specific impact of plasma on plastic properties and its subsequent influence on sensory attributes requires further investigation.
This study presents a comprehensive chemical and sensory comparison between commercial regular beers and their alcohol-free beer (NAB) counterparts available in the Italian market. Eight paired samples were characterised using physicochemical analyses, volatile aroma profiling via bidimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCxGC-MS), and sensory evaluation by a trained expert panel. The findings revealed that NABs exhibited significantly elevated total extract and pH values but reduced net extract relative to RBs. Volatile compound analysis demonstrated a marked reduction in fermentative esters, higher alcohols, and sesquiterpenes in NABs, with exceptions in specific terpene concentrations attributable to late or dry hopping techniques. Sensory profiling indicated that RBs possessed a fuller body and pronounced maltiness and alcoholic notes, whereas NABs were characterised by enhanced sweetness, fruitiness, and distinctive worty and honey-like flavours. Principal component analysis effectively differentiated the two beer categories, underscoring the disparities in residual sugars and aroma compounds as the principal discriminators. Despite advancements in brewing technologies, NABs continue to manifest sensory limitations, notably excessive sweetness and wortiness, diverging substantially from their alcoholic counterparts. These results underscore the persistent challenges in mimicking the sensory complexity of conventional beers in NAB production and highlight the critical role of brewing methodologies in shaping the final product quality.
IntroductionIn the Global South, street-vended foods play a crucial role in food security and economic sustenance; however, they also pose considerable public health risks due to systemic safety vulnerabilities. This study examined the food safety knowledge, compliance, and practices of stationary street food vendors in Grassy Park, Cape Town.MethodsUtilizing a quantitative cross-sectional descriptive design, data were gathered from 108 vendors through structured questionnaires and observational checklists. Descriptive and inferential analyses, including Pearson correlation and Multiple Linear Regression, were employed to identify the determinants of food safety behavior.ResultsThe findings indicated a significant “Knowledge-Practice Gap”; although formal training exhibited a positive correlation with theoretical knowledge (r = 0.388, p < 0.01), it paradoxically correlated with lower practice scores (β = −10.403, p < 0.001), suggesting that conventional instruction may be overly “ritualized” for the informal sector. Key predictors of superior safety practices included possession of a Post-Matric qualification (β = 16.061, p = 0.004) and belonging to the 31–40 age cohort (β = 7.402, p < 0.001). Additionally, a “gender paradox” was identified, wherein female vendors exhibited higher compliance despite possessing lower formal knowledge scores. Structural barriers, such as a 94% deficiency in hand-washing facilities and limited access to potable water (44%), further impeded the translation of knowledge into practice.DiscussionThese findings highlight that solely cognitive training is inadequate. To protect public health, interventions must shift towards behaviourally-oriented coaching and substantial infrastructure investment to address the socio-economic and environmental realities of the informal food sector.
IntroductionShea (Vitellaria paradoxa) butter is a traditional West African fat with growing interest as a functional ingredient in baked products. This study evaluated the physical (dimensional) and sensory properties of cakes produced with varying substitution levels of shea butter for margarine across three independent cake-making systems: creaming, rubbing-in and melted-fat methods.MethodsA 3 × 5 factorial design was employed with five fat substitution levels (100% margarine, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 100% shea butter). Cakes were evaluated for dimensional properties (height, weight, and calculated volume) and sensory attributes using a 9-point hedonic scale with fourteen trained panelists. Data were analysed using two-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test at p < 0.05.Results and discussionResults showed that increasing shea butter substitution significantly affected cake volume and sensory attributes depending on the preparation method. The weight, height and volume of the cake samples ranged from 24.33 to 27.0 g, 2.50–2.93 cm and 668.00–784.10 cm3 for creaming method, from 34.00 to 37.00 g, 3.40–3.67 cm and 948.50–1,138 cm3 for rubbing-in and from 36.33 to 39.0 g, 2.77–3.23 cm and 802.50–961.80 cm3 for melting method, respectfully. In the creaming method, substitution levels above 25% significantly reduced volume and overall acceptability (p < 0.05). However, cakes prepared using the rubbing-in and melted-fat methods exhibited greater tolerance to higher substitution levels with moderate sensory acceptance. The findings indicate that shea butter can function as a fat substitute in cake production, although its performance is method-dependent. These results provide insight into the functional behaviour of shea butter in different cake-making systems and support its potential application in bakery formulations.
