Abstract Introduction: The sustainable, safe, and legal use of wild species is central to the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, yet in Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries, legal definitions of game meat, animal, and trophy remain fragmented across conservation, animal health, meat industry, and food safety laws. This definitional inconsistency creates regulatory ambiguity with implications for conservation outcomes, food safety, trade, and zoonotic disease risk. Methods: This study applied a comparative legal analysis of national legislation from SADC member states, examining statutory definitions across wildlife conservation, animal health, meat industry, and food safety frameworks. Definitions were systematically extracted, categorized, and compared across jurisdictions and benchmarked against selected non-SADC countries and international standards (Codex Alimentarius and World Organisation for Animal Health [WOAH]). Results: The results showed that wildlife legislation in all SADC countries defines animals and regulates wildlife products, but the scope and biological coverage of “animal” vary substantially, affecting species protection, enforcement thresholds, and downstream regulation of meat. In addition, most SADC countries do not explicitly recognize game meat as a food category. Where defined, meat is often treated as a wildlife derivative rather than a food product, leaving inspection, hygiene, and disease control weakly anchored in food safety and animal health law. Furthermore, trophy definitions are relatively consistent in identifying durable animal parts, but critical divergence exists where meat is included within trophy definitions, collapsing the distinction between symbolic hunting outcomes and consumable food products. Definitional ambiguity at the wildlife–food safety interface undermines legal certainty, weakens disease surveillance, and constrains sustainable wildlife economies. Conclusion: Harmonizing core definitions, recognizing game meat as food once it enters trade, separating trophies from consumable products, and aligning national laws with Codex and WOAH standards are essential steps for strengthening conservation, public health, and One Health governance in SADC and beyond. One Health impact statement This study addresses critical regulatory gaps at the wildlife–food interface in Southern Africa, where inconsistent legal definitions of “animal,” “meat,” and “trophy” undermine both conservation and public health. By harmonizing these definitions, SADC nations can strengthen zoonotic disease surveillance and ensure the legal, safe trade of game meat. A One Health approach suggested by the study, which recognizes that societal actors including conservationists, veterinarians, and food safety authorities must collaboratively design governance systems to manage wildlife and game meat sustainably, needs to be implemented in the region. This transdisciplinary approach can be done by engaging stakeholders to coproduce regulations and standards, harmonizing definitions of “animal,” “meat,” and “trophy” to reduce zoonotic spillover risks and support rural livelihoods. Integrating ecological, veterinary, and social science knowledge enables governance outcomes across human, animal, and environmental health, demonstrating added value that could not be achieved through sectoral action alone. Practical solutions, such as recognizing game meat as a formal food category, facilitates a unified governance framework that manages pathogen spillover risks while supporting sustainable wildlife economies and rural livelihoods.
Abstract Background: One Health (OH) is a transdisciplinary approach that recognises the interconnected health of people, animals, and ecosystems. The feasibility and acceptability of OH strategies for community level and primary care levels in rural and remote Australia remain underexplored. Methods: This qualitative study used semi-structured interviews with 11 selected informants, spanning human, animal, and environmental health sectors in regional/rural/remote North Queensland. Guidance on approach and questions was provided by an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander advisory committee. A modified Health Beliefs Model approach was used to inform the interview guide questions. Qualitative thematic analysis was undertaken through inductive approaches. Results: OH was seen as valuable for addressing underlying social and environmental determinants of health. However, significant barriers emerged, including professional silos, unclear roles, limited intersectoral communication, and funding constraints. Community trust and buy-in, cultural considerations, and workforce transience impacted feasibility and continuity of OH approaches in these settings. Despite these challenges, the professionals interviewed highlighted existing informal cross-disciplinary collaboration and emphasised the need for community ownership and sustained engagement. Policy support, changes in financial remuneration and OH integration into undergraduate professional curricula were seen as vital enablers of OH uptake. Conclusion: While conceptually supported by the respondents, they believed that operationalising OH requires structural change, and culturally grounded strategies with community ownership at the centre. Successful OH implementation depends not only on interprofessional collaboration but also on empowering communities to co-lead OH initiatives, addressing both biomedical and socio-cultural and ecological determinants of health using transdisciplinary principles. One Health impact statement This pilot study explored the feasibility and acceptability of implementing One Health approaches in rural and remote Australia from the perspectives of a sample of human, animal and environmental health professionals. Our findings show that these professionals felt that One Health offers unique added value. It reduces duplication across sectors, improves efficiency, and creates more sustainable outcomes by tackling underlying social and environmental drivers of disease. However, barriers such as professional silos and unclear roles highlight the need for structural change and targeted education. By bringing together practitioners across human, animal, and environmental health, this research co-produced knowledge that can inform practical, locally driven solutions. The analysis highlighted that professionals working in under-resourced settings strongly believe that a transdisciplinary approach is not optional but essential for addressing complex health challenges.
Abstract Background: Zoonoses are infectious diseases that are naturally transmitted from animals to humans, often causing a significant burden to animal and human health. Central Asia is experiencing increased challenges from zoonoses, where they have become one of the leading drivers of poverty, yet the region lacks a systematic review of zoonotic diseases. Methods: We conducted a systematic review to synthesise scientific publications and grey literature concerning the occurrence, diagnosis, and control of zoonoses in Central Asia, with particular focus on identifying historical and ongoing monitoring programs to pinpoint any gaps in data collection/surveillance and to better understand current and future risks for the region. Results: We identified 125,150 potentially relevant records from searches of Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and ProMED-Mail between 1950 and 2023, with 676 retained for full-text review after initial examination. We found 368 records from Kazakhstan (236 from WoS, Scopus, and GS; 132 from ProMED-mail), but far fewer for Kyrgyzstan (n = 118), Uzbekistan (63), Tajikistan (35), and Turkmenistan (8). We identified 147 zoonotic agents that had been reported from 196 species of wild animal (including invertebrate vectors), from several species of livestock (including poultry), from companion animals, and from human beings. Although many of these pathogens have low virulence, we identified several that are seriously pathogenic, have killed people, caused economic damage, and remain problematic, including those that cause: anthrax, brucellosis, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, echinococcosis, influenza A, plague, rabies, rickettsial disease, and leishmaniasis. We detail the host species, vectors, key research topics, and routine surveillance programs conducted on these significant pathogens across Central Asia. Conclusion: Our study outlines the need for a “One Health” surveillance approach across the region to elucidate the contribution of various species, land-use practices, and food supply chain processes to zoonotic risk, while also promoting cross-border data sharing and improving local knowledge of disease risks from wild and domestic animals and their mitigation. Collectively, these changes can reduce spillover risks and enable faster recognition and containment of disease outbreaks, which can ultimately have immense economic and public health benefits across the region. One Health impact statement This is the first systematic collation of zoonotic disease research across Central Asia. We carried out a review of the scientific and grey literature across available databases for the period 1950–2023 inclusive. We provide a database detailing the current situation regarding zoonoses in Central Asia, identifying what is known about the animal reservoirs and vectors of each pathogen and the transmission processes between wild and domestic animals and humans. We also detail the past and currently active surveillance programs for several highly pathogenic zoonoses across the region. We highlight some areas that require improvement, including cross-border communication and the monitoring of wildlife populations. Our findings are a step forward in developing a holistic understanding of zoonoses in Central Asia and offer a meaningful contribution for assessing epidemic and pandemic emergence risks across the region, thus allowing future research and monitoring efforts to be prioritised.
Abstract Background: Climate change poses critical challenges to global livestock systems, threatening productivity, food security, and environmental sustainability. The ruminant microbiome, particularly the rumen microbial community, plays a vital role in animal health, nutrition, and productivity, while also contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. Framing the microbiome within a One Health perspective highlights its importance for animal well-being, human nutrition, and environmental resilience. Methods: This review synthesizes evidence on the impacts of climate-related stressors, including heat, drought, and feed scarcity on the livestock microbiome. It examines interventions such as probiotics, prebiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation, dietary modifications, and synthetic biology approaches, alongside strategies to inhibit methanogenic archaea. Advances in microbiome analytics, including omics platforms, sensors, and machine learning, are discussed in relation to precision livestock farming and monitoring of animal health and emissions. Results: Findings indicate that microbiome shifts under climate stressors influence both livestock productivity and methane emissions. Meta-analyses and field trials demonstrate that feed and microbial additives and methanogenesis inhibitors can decrease enteric methane emissions by 20–80%, enhance feed conversion efficiency by 5–15%, and sustain milk production under heat stress conditions. While technological innovations enable more precise monitoring, significant gaps remain in understanding host–microbe–climate interactions, and barriers such as technical limitations, regulatory hurdles, and farmer adoption challenges persist. Integrated multi-omics methodologies now elucidate key genes and pathways that regulate fermentation resilience, facilitating precise microbiome engineering via probiotics, bacteriophages, and CRISPR-mediated modulation of methanogens. Beyond biological innovation, microbiome-focused approaches are consistent with international One Health frameworks (FAO–WHO–WOAH), facilitating the mitigation of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), reduction of zoonotic risks, and reporting of greenhouse gas emissions within climate-smart agricultural initiatives. Integrating microbiome metrics into national livestock, AMR, and climate policies can elevate them from experimental instruments to quantifiable sustainability strategies. Conclusion: Overall, this review demonstrates that harnessing the ruminant microbiome has the potential to reduce global agricultural methane emissions by up to 40%, while simultaneously enhancing animal resilience and productivity – positioning the microbiome as a critical biological and policy frontier for climate-smart, One Health-oriented livestock transformation. Microbiome-based strategies offer a promising pathway toward climate-smart livestock systems. Achieving this will require harmonized research methodologies, systems-based multi-omics approaches, cross-sectoral collaboration, and supportive policy frameworks. Integrating microbiome innovations into climate adaptation strategies can strengthen livestock productivity, improve food security, and support environmental resilience. One Health impact statement This review underscores the centrality of the ruminant microbiome at the interface of animal, human, and environmental health. By shaping livestock productivity, methane emissions, and antimicrobial resistance dynamics, microbial communities act as critical levers for sustainable food systems. Integrating microbiome science into livestock management contributes to safer food, reduced zoonotic and AMR risks, and lower greenhouse gas outputs, thereby aligning with the global One Health agenda. Advancing microbiome-based interventions through selective breeding, dietary strategies, and precision livestock farming, offers practical opportunities to strengthen climate resilience, improve animal welfare, and safeguard public health.
Abstract Background: Hydroclimatic events, such as intense rainfall and flooding, are known to amplify the transmission of the zoonotic disease leptospirosis on land. However, the fate of Leptospira once transported downstream into coastal ecosystems remains a critical knowledge gap. This review synthesizes the evidence for the land-sea continuum of leptospirosis risk under the One Health framework. Methods: A literature search of PubMed, Scopus, and SciELO (2014–2024) was conducted to identify terrestrial hydroclimatic drivers of leptospirosis in humans or animals. From 563 records, 196 articles were included for analysis. Results: Findings confirm that intense precipitation and flooding are the primary mechanisms for mobilizing Leptospira from terrestrial reservoirs, with 70% of studies identifying flooding as a definitive trigger. A key finding is the pathogen’s ability to survive in saline-affected coastal soils, suggesting a biological pathway into marine environments. While leptospirosis is a recognized cause of mortality in some marine mammals, the evidence highlights a complex “zoonotic cocktail” of serogroups/serovars – such as Pomona, Grippotyphosa, and Icterohaemorrhagiae – shared between terrestrial runoff and marine hosts. This underscores the potential for land-to-sea transmission, although endemic circulation within marine populations also plays a significant role. Conclusions: This review establishes the evidence for the hydroclimatic mobilization of Leptospira and proposes that this represents a significant, understudied threat to Ocean Health. We argue that a holistic One Health framework must bridge the land-sea divide. Integrating this continuum into surveillance – using tools such as integrated diagnostic protocols and shared databases – is a strategic imperative for addressing zoonotic challenges in a changing climate. One Health impact statement This review demonstrates that climate-driven flooding creates a direct hydrological and biological pathway for the “zoonotic cocktail” of Leptospira serogroups/serovars to contaminate coastal and marine ecosystems. This work provides actionable insights for public health officials, environmental managers, and marine conservationists by identifying a critical, underexplored risk at the land-sea interface. The added value of our One Health approach lies in integrating environmental triggers with multi-species epidemiological data, identifying a systemic threat – the potential for large-scale pathogen spillover into the marine food web – through integrated surveillance systems that monitor human, animal, and water-quality indicators in parallel. By bridging the conceptual gap between land and sea, this work offers a transdisciplinary framework for co-producing strategies with policy makers and local communities to assess and mitigate emerging zoonotic risks in a changing climate.
Abstract Background: Pastoralist communities in Northern Kenya face intensifying health and livelihood challenges driven by climate change, infectious disease outbreaks, and conflict. One Health (OH) has increasingly been promoted as a holistic approach capable of addressing these interconnected socioecological risks. However, in practice, OH policy and most initiatives in Kenya remain largely driven by the human health and veterinary sectors and are biomedical in focus. Systems thinking approaches, including participatory modeling, can help to elucidate socioecological system (SES) dynamics and inform more integrated OH policy and practice. This study aims to characterize the OH system in Turkana County, Kenya and to identify the drivers, mediators, and outcomes that shape health and well-being. Methods: We applied a participatory fuzzy cognitive mapping (FCM) approach. Participants were purposively sampled and included community members and leaders, as well as representatives from health, veterinary, environment, and non-governmental organization. A total of 35 cognitive maps were co-developed and aggregated into a final consensus OH system map. The aggregated map was analyzed using centrality metrics, including indegree and outdegree, to classify system components as drivers, mediators, or outcomes. Results: The most central components of the OH system were classified as outcomes, and included human and livestock health, nutrition, and access to health and veterinary services. Mediators, broadly the second most central group of components, included natural resource access, insecurity, income, mobility, human resources, education, environmental degradation, and gender inequity. Key drivers of the system included drought, water infrastructure, seasonality, the Kimormor Initiative, and community animal disease reporters. Conclusion: In contrast to most OH policies and initiatives in Kenya that focus predominantly on zoonotic and infectious disease threats, our study highlights how health and well-being emerge from interactions among social, institutional, and ecological processes, rather than discrete sectoral pathways. By empirically grounding a socioecological framing of OH in a participatory systems model, this study helps to operationalize recent OH theoretical frameworks at the local level. In Turkana, this perspective highlights priority areas for OH action, including public-private partnerships to support frontline service delivery, conflict-sensitive approaches, and more integrated surveillance that reflects livelihood and environmental dynamics. One Health impact statement This study provides an empirically grounded systems representation of One Health (OH) in Turkana County, Kenya. By integrating the knowledge and perspectives of community members, government, and non-governmental actors through participatory fuzzy cognitive mapping, the study produces a shared understanding of the OH system that no single sector could have generated alone. Critically, community members contributed place-based and Indigenous knowledge of human, animal, and environmental relationships that is rarely captured in conventional OH research. This transdisciplinary approach revealed that nutrition, natural resource governance, and insecurity as central drivers of human and livestock health outcomes that fall outside conventional OH policy frameworks, yet profoundly shape disease burden, food security, and livelihood resilience. By making these interactions explicit, the study supports more coordinated, resource-efficient OH action – including strengthening frontline service delivery through public-private partnerships, conflict-sensitive programming, and integrated surveillance that reflects the livelihood and environmental dynamics shaping health in pastoral communities.
Abstract Background: Though reported more than 100 years ago Huanglongbing (HLB)/citrus greening (CG), the disease remains of global phytosanitary importance. Methods: This study presents a systematic review of the disease from 1971 to 2024, based on the literature retrieved from the SCOPUS database. Results: The analysis reveals that far less has been published in the literature compared to other similar phytosanitary important citrus diseases, such as citrus black spot (CBS). Published research on HLB/CG only increased from the early 2000s despite HLB being first reported in 1919. Notable HLB research increase occurred after the first detection in the USA in 2005, coinciding with extensive funding and the adoption of more accurate molecular diagnostics. Conclusion: According to the analyzed data, the USA and China are the leading countries in publishing HLB research. Spain’s active involvement in HLB research, despite the disease not being reported there, highlights its regulatory and scientific significance. The review also showed that climate change may accelerate the spread of HLB pathogens and their vectors into new geographical regions. The notable lack of research from Africa highlights the need for increased financial support for scientists to focus on CG. One Health impact statement Managing Citrus Greening involves a collaborative strategy that interconnects the environment, plant and human health.
Abstract Background: This article seeks greater precision in defining One Health by clarifying ambiguities and elaborating issues that arise from the One Health High-Level Expert Panel (OHHLEP) definition, while acknowledging the utility of the OHHLEP definition and the consensus it represents. In particular, we clarify certain implications of how the third, environmental component of One Health is understood. Methods: We developed our argument by taking part in the interdisciplinary Science Advice for Policy by European Academies (SAPEA) consortium for One Health Governance in the European Union. We are a highly interdisciplinary team that has developed this theoretical position by meeting throughout 2024 to write the report chapter on which it is based. Results: We suggest that whereas an “environment” implies something external (and perhaps subordinate) to humans and animals, an “ecosystem” implies a system of which both humans and animals are part (alongside plants, chemicals, microbes, etc.). We explore three sets of concepts within the OHHLEP definition: “integrated” and “unifying”; “balanced” and “optimised”; “closely linked”; and “interdependent.” Lastly, we explain our synergies and complementarity with adjacent concepts including “Planetary Health”. Conclusions: To us, clarity in these nuances seems key in the development of One Health away from an anthropocentric framing towards a more integrated and balanced framing. While we argue that the ecosystemic, holistic view is preferable and better aligned with One Health’s expanding scope, we note that conditions for making practical changes are not yet able to accommodate holism. One Health impact statement Defining a concept is an opportunity to work through contradictions and imprecisions that can hinder practical application. The concept of One Health is transformative and complex. While substantial attention has been given to defining it, ambiguities remain. In addition to possible conflicts and frictions in applying One Health principles, these ambiguities have political and ethical stakes. Fully integrating the third principle of environmental health and granting it as much attention and importance as human and animal health is a challenge with practical and ethical/political dimensions. The conceptual work in this article will help implement One Health and realise its added value potential. It is transdisciplinary in that it was developed by a highly interdisciplinary group of scholars, spanning humanities/social sciences (philosophy, anthropology, legal studies, public health), and biological sciences (veterinary medicine, parasitology), all of whom are engaged with clinical practice, policy making, and/or community-based work.
Abstract Background: Rural communities in the Horn of Africa face high exposure to interconnected health risks, such as zoonotic diseases, food and water safety issues, and antimicrobial resistance, that benefit from an integrated One Health (OH) approach. However, these populations remain underserved by conventional top-down health interventions. We assessed whether community conversations (CCs), a participatory and action-oriented dialogue method, could improve OH-related knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) among (agro-)pastoralists. Methods: A pre-post study was conducted in 19 communities in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia from June to October 2024. Community members (n = 358) participated in four CC sessions over 2–3 months, guided by trained facilitators using a standardised facilitation manual. KAP outcomes were assessed using validated psychometric models with fixed-parameter scoring: a bifactor 2-PL IRT model for knowledge, a bifactor graded response model for attitudes, and a network-based composite score for practices. Within-person changes were assessed using paired Wilcoxon or McNemar tests, and predictors of KAP change were examined using mixed-effects regression models accounting for community clustering. Results: Participation in the CC intervention was associated with significant improvements in OH knowledge (mean theta scores pre- and post-intervention: 0.04 vs 1.39; p < 0.001), attitudes (0.07 vs 1.07; p < 0.001), and practices (mean network-weighted composite scores pre- and post-intervention: 1.06 vs 1.66; p < 0.001). Positive gains were observed across all three countries and most participant subgroups, with shifts in knowledge and attitudes emerging as significant predictors of improved practices. Conclusions: CCs were effective in improving OH KAP in the study communities. The findings support CCs as a scalable, community engagement model with potential to strengthen health behaviours in resource-limited contexts. One Health impact statement Pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in the Horn of Africa face interconnected human, animal, and environmental health risks arising from their close interaction with livestock. This study demonstrates how community conversations (CCs) – a facilitated, dialogue-based approach using illustrations and guided reflection – can strengthen community understanding of zoonotic diseases, antimicrobial resistance and food safety and support practical actions that reduce these risks. By improving knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP), CCs help protect both people and animals and contribute to more resilient communities. Development of the CCs drew on expertise from human and animal health and social science, while incorporating relevant environmental considerations, to design a holistic, culturally grounded One Health intervention. This interdisciplinary approach produced a facilitator guide and achieved meaningful shifts in KAP outcomes that would not have been achievable through typical top-down, single-sector interventions.
Abstract Background: Food security and nutrition are threatened globally due to climate change. The West African Sahel is particularly vulnerable to climate change given food systems that are highly dependent on rainfall and are currently complicated by significant governance and security challenges. The aim of this article is to propose a One Health framework that considers the complex interconnections within food systems in the Sahel using a systems thinking approach. This framework can serve as a guide for stakeholders and policy makers in the design and implementation of interventions that address the underlying causes of food security and malnutrition. Methods: We collected data using participatory and qualitative approaches across three field sites in the Sahel, two in Senegal and one in Mauritania, in 2023 and 2024. We used interviews, participant observation, and photovoice to collect data. We analyzed the data using inductive thematic analysis. We conducted a literature review to identify the existing One Health and Nutrition frameworks and selected two to serve as guiding frameworks. Results: Informed by data from three Sahelian field sites, we propose a new framework focused on food security and nutrition and, grounded in One Health principles. The framework is guided by a bottom-up approach that prioritizes local perspectives and community-driven insights. The framework has five steps: (1) stakeholder engagement, (2) One Health assessment, (3) prioritization, (4) planning and implementation, and (5) monitoring, evaluation, and research. Conclusion: Sustainability and cultural relevance of the framework depend on early and continuous engagement with both the private sector and community stakeholders. Incorporating local perceptions and attitudes toward culturally significant foods enables the design of interventions that are widely acceptable and minimizes barriers to adoption. Seasonal variations in food availability must also be considered, alongside opportunities to leverage private-sector participation to address these gaps. Building on existing programs can reduce implementation costs and streamline prioritization of nutritional interventions. Finally, integrating academic research into monitoring and evaluation enhances understanding of causal pathways and informs evidence-based strategies to improve nutrition outcomes. One Health impact statement This manuscript proposes a framework to address challenges to food security and nutrition in the context of the Sahel by utilizing a One Health approach. The framework can potentially benefit communities where human and livestock interactions are high, such as those in the Sahel and other areas where pastoralists live. The framework was built using a bottom-up approach, by incorporating the needs and perspectives from communities as a departing point. The research was highly multi-disciplinary and involved several actors at different administrative and academic levels in the design, implementation, and analysis of the data.
Abstract Background: Tanzania’s rich diversity and human-animal-environment interactions have intensified the risk of zoonotic disease outbreaks, highlighting the need for a robust One Health (OH) approach. Despite the establishment of national OH frameworks, operational challenges in multisectoral coordination, communication, and collaboration persist at all levels. This study aims to examine the association of factors influencing OH implementation in Tanzania, with a focus on zoonotic disease prevention and control among key OH actors at all levels. Methods: A cross-sectional study conducted in three regions of Tanzania between June and August 2023 to explore factors influencing multisectoral coordination and collaboration in preventing and controlling zoonotic diseases. Data were collected from 101 officials from human health, livestock, environment, crop agriculture, and wildlife sectors, using semi-structured questionnaires. Demographic characteristics, sectoral affiliation, and key OH implementation variables, including awareness, coordination, communication, training, joint surveillance, data sharing, and Funding, were analyzed using Chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests at p ≤ 0.05. Results: Results revealed a significant variation in OH awareness across sectors (p < 0.01), with the livestock sector showing high awareness level (95.5%), followed by wildlife (53.9%) and human health (34.2%). Low awareness was noted in the environment (33.3%) and crop agriculture (18.8%) sectors. Awareness did not significantly differ by gender but increased with age (p = 0.00582). Sectoral differences were significant in involvement in multisectoral coordination (p = 0.0022), whereas communication means did not vary by gender, age, or sector. Training in Key OH components (p = 0.0052), workforce capacity (p = 0.0015), zoonotic surveillance (p = 0.0032), data sharing (p = 0.0267), and budget (p = 0.0273) showed notable disparities across sectors. The health sector had more staff and financial resources, but existing guidelines did not have much impact on how OH was put into practice. Conclusions: Existing policy frameworks, inclusive training, equitable resource allocation, interoperable communication systems, and institutionalized coordination mechanisms are key to effective OH implementation. Addressing sectoral disparities and strengthening operational enablers will be critical to advancing Tanzania’s OH agenda and enhancing public health resilience. These findings offer actionable insights for policy makers, practitioners, and researchers working to operationalize OH in low-resource settings. One Health impact statement Multisectoral coordination is essential for effective One Health (OH) implementation, as it facilitates integrated responses to complex health challenges at the human-animal-environment interface. In Tanzania, this approach has enhanced disease surveillance, institutionalized cross-sectoral governance, and fostered community engagement in early detection of diseases and response to disease outbreaks, including Marburg and Leptospirosis. The adoption of a transdisciplinary research model that incorporates academic, experiential, local, and indigenous knowledge has further enriched the relevance and impact of OH initiatives. This integrative approach facilitates joint creation of impactful knowledge tailored to specific local contexts, promotes equitable participation, and stimulates innovative solutions and actionable outcomes. By embracing a range of knowledge systems, including indigenous ecological insights and community-driven practices, researchers have formulated solutions that are both adaptable and culturally aligned with local contexts. Therefore, this study is relevant as it aims to strengthen multisectoral OH coordination and collaboration to promote resilience and contribute to sustainable health and development outcomes.
Background: Companion animals can play vital roles in promoting human health and well-being, with the potential to mitigate contemporary social concerns about human isolation and loneliness. Zooeyia, recognized as the positive inverse of 'zoonosis', is a term inclusive of these benefits within One Health. Exploring zooeyia's influence in One Health from a transdisciplinary lens offers a unique opportunity for integrative, cooperative systems thinking that recognizes people, animals, the environment, and the connections between them as parts of larger complex socioecological systems. Methods: This case study presents our team's initial work to develop a Canadian One Health human-animal bond network. Applying One Health zooeyia, we envision a transdisciplinary network that collaboratively explores the human-animal bond and its broader implications across systems that shape, and are shaped by, our increasingly asocial society. Results: Guided by the One Health High-Level Expert Panel's (OHHLEP) definition of transdisciplinary collaboration, our team's early efforts have begun to address a global need identified by academic and non-academic knowledge holders alike-social disconnection, bridge disciplinary divides, elevate post-humanist and Indigenous perspectives, and critically engage with the social science dimensions of the human-animal bond. Collectively, these efforts have already generated valuable insights and practical lessons for advancing transdisciplinarity broadly within One Health. Conclusion: Emphasizing systems thinking in future One Health zooeyia initiatives can contribute to a more inclusive, responsive, and resilient future for One Health research, policy, and practice. One Health impact statement This case report details our team's efforts to establish a collaborative Canadian One Health zooeyia network centred on the reciprocal human-companion animal bond through a complex systems lens. The initiative brings together diverse disciplines alongside Indigenous and non-academic community knowledge to research a meaningful, real-world challenge: isolation and loneliness in our asocial age. To do this, we operationalized the One Health High-Level Expert Panel's definition of transdisciplinary collaboration. A systems thinking approach focused on the human-animal bond is not common within One Health, and it offers valuable insights and practical lessons to strengthen One Health research, policy, and practice to address existing and emerging complex health challenges. Examining the human-animal bond through a One Health zooeyia lens, emphasizing the expertise of a multiplicity of academic and non-academic partners through a transdisciplinarity lens, can create new opportunities for integrated systems thinking.
Background: Zimbabwe's agricultural sector faces an imminent threat from 73 invasive plant pests currently established in neighbouring countries, with the highest risk of entry stemming from travellers and their luggage, a new horizon scan reveals. Methods: The Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI) Horizon Scanning Tool (HST), one of the modules used to focus pest threats for specific geographical areas, was employed to scan threats to Zimbabwe's plant biosecurity. The likelihood of pest entry and establishment was determined using the procedure for pest risk analysis described by CABI and Food and Agriculture Organisation. The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization method for likelihood of entry and the likelihood of establishment were ranked on a scale of 1 (very unlikely) to 5 (very likely). Pest rating was done by the selected pest risk analysis experts from the Plant Health Authorities in Zimbabwe. Descriptive statistics were mostly used to analyse the threats. Diversity indices were included to bring a new dimension to pest risk analysis where these indices capture meaningful ecological patterns relevant to threats of invasive pest inversion to the country. Results: There were 29 plant pests, 58 invertebrates, 17 fungi/chromista, 4 bacteria, 5 viruses, and one vertebrate pest-threat species recorded in Zimbabwe's neighbours, whilst 1,163 pest threats were present in SADC and 16,651 were found globally. The HST revealed more invertebrate pest threat organisms to Zimbabwe's plant biosecurity than the other pest organisms. Zimbabwe's neighbours had 50% invertebrate threats; SADC had 43% whilst the global scan revealed 47%. More threats were from South Africa (87%) than the other three neighbours (13%). Of the identified pest threats from the Zimbabwe's four neighbours, 73 (64%) pest species had entry and establishment score of 3 (moderately likely or more). These 73 pest species comprised of 3 (4%) bacteria, 9 (12%) fungi, 46 (63%) invertebrates, 11 (15%) weeds/plants, and 4 (5%) viruses. Of the identified pest threats from the Zimbabwe's four neighbours, 73 (64%) pest species had entry and establishment score of 3 (moderately likely or more). These 73 pest species comprised of 3 (4%) bacteria, 9 (12%) fungi, 46 (63%) invertebrates, 11 (15%) weeds/plants, and 4 (5%) viruses. Dysmicoccus brevipes (score 5), Polyphagotarsonemus latus (4), Aleurothrixus floccosus (4), Aonidiella orientalis (4), Ceratitis rosa (4), Phoracantha recurva (4), Erysiphe platani, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (4), Candidatus phytoplasma palmae (4), Amaranthus retroflexus (4), Solanum torvum (4), and Maize Chlorotic Mottle Virus (4) were amongst the major threats Zimbabwe's plant biosecurity faces. Simpson diversity index revealed that Zimbabwe's neighbours had moderate pest threat diversity (1-D = 0.62). The invertebrates (51%), dominated the pest threats present in the neighbours. SADC (1-D = 0.66) had higher diversity with plants (40%) and invertebrates (43%). The Shannon diversity index (H ') revealed a gradient pattern where global diversity (H ' = 1.63) was the highest, then SADC (H ' = 1.41), and lastly, the Zimbabwe's neighbours (H ' = 1.37). Conclusions: This study provides the first systematic horizon scan and prioritization of invasive pest threats for Zimbabwe, offering a critical evidence base for proactive biosecurity policy and resource allocation.
Abstract The One Health Horizon Scanning project identified pressing global and regional research priorities by engaging over 400 diverse stakeholders across multiple disciplines (animal, plant, environmental, human, agricultural and wildlife sciences), multiple sectors (public, private, non-government, civil society), educational institutions, UN agencies, other international organisations and networks), age groups, genders, levels of working experience and countries. The research involved using a multi-phase participatory process, following good practice for Horizon Scanning, comprising an online survey, participatory workshops (two face-to-face and two virtual) and a second survey. From this combined process, five high-priority themes emerged for One Health research, policy and practice: integrated surveillance, climate-driven disease dynamics, governance mechanisms, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and socio-environmental drivers of disease. While broadly aligned with the action tracks of the Quadripartite’s One Health Joint Plan of Action, key priorities surfaced, particularly around the need for environmental integration, equity, governance and implementation tools. This commentary reflects on these findings and their implications for operationalising a globally coherent but locally responsive One Health strategy. One Health impact statement This commentary presents insights from a global Horizon Scanning exercise, spotlighting perceived emerging research and implementation priorities for One Health in different global regions. It highlights thematic areas where current One Health agendas must evolve to address the environmental, social and political complexities that are constraining health progress in a broad sense. The top four research themes were: Climate Change and Health; Surveillance and Preparedness; Governance, Policy, Implementation and Evaluation; Social, Cultural, and Educational Factors (including Data, Knowledge and Evidence). The work reinforces the importance of a forward-looking One Health research agenda that can advance integrated surveillance, strengthen governance and equity and tackle drivers such as climate change, environmental degradation and antimicrobial resistance. Aligning research investment and evidence-based policy with these priorities will enable improved understanding, coordinated responses and effective prevention of health threats across humans, animals, plants and ecosystems.
Abstract Background: Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a zoonotic viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes, that causes significant impacts on animal health, public health, and socio-economic wellbeing in affected areas. Although RVF vaccines for livestock are available and human vaccines are currently under development, a coordinated One Health approach to vaccination has yet to be fully explored. This mini-review article aims to examine RVF vaccination strategies from a One Health perspective. Methods: Through a narrative literature review, evidence on RVF vaccination strategies for animals and humans was analyzed. Recurring themes relevant to decision making were identified and categorized into six interconnected decision domains, establishing a “One Health vaccination strategies” (OHVS) framework used to structure the synthesis and discussion of the evidence. Based on the available literature, as well as on strategies implemented for livestock and mathematical modeling studies, six joint scenarios combining livestock and human vaccination are suggested for future investigations. Results: Current evidence primarily supports preventive mass vaccination for livestock and indicates a targeted strategy for high-risk human populations. Conclusions: The expected synergistic benefits for affected communities, along with the balanced distribution of responsibilities and resources across sectors, make OHVS a valuable intervention framework. Once RVF human vaccines become available, this unified approach can strengthen collaboration among public health, veterinary, and environmental sectors, leading to a more effective, equitable, and sustainable intervention landscape. One Health impact statement Rift Valley fever (RVF) exemplifies the intricacies of environmental, human, and animal interconnections and interdependencies. Countries such as Tanzania where RVF is endemic have experienced decadal outbreaks in addition to a potential persistent transmission pattern, warranting implementation of vaccination programs that are effective in the context of complex disease ecosystem. This article explores the possibilities for vaccinating animals and humans as a critical component of a unified One Health approach to RVF prevention and control, drawing from existing literature and promising new research paths. It also outlines a practical decision making framework to help shape effective RVF vaccination strategies for both human and animal populations. By working closely with partners in Tanzania and the United States, this initiative demonstrates proof of concept for the importance of transdisciplinary collaboration and cross-sectoral coordination in disease prevention and control. This also provides actionable insights for both the scientific community and decision makers.
Abstract Background: The One Health approach, which integrates human, animal, and environmental health, is crucial for addressing complex global health threats. However, the epidemiological methods underpinning this approach have not been systematically evaluated. Methods: We conducted a scoping systematic review to characterise the design of self-labelled observational One Health epidemiological studies, define their epidemiologic units, and assess their adherence to the Checklist for One Health Epidemiological Reporting of Evidence (COHERE). We searched Ovid Medline, Scopus, and CABI for observational studies published since 2004 with the term “One Health” in the title. Results: From 1874 unique records, 79 studies were included. Our analysis revealed a marked increase in publications since 2020, and predominance of cross-sectional designs (79.7%). We classified epidemiologic units as either “singular” (e.g., households, farms), where components are naturally co-located, or “intended” (e.g., villages, communities), where domains are sampled independently within a geographic boundary. Intended units were more common, reflecting practical challenges in integrated sampling. The assessment of 23 studies that included all three One Health domains against the COHERE checklist revealed strong adherence to conceptual items, such as justifying the One Health approach (100%). However, we found significant reporting gaps in various methodological areas, including the description of the interdisciplinary study team (13% compliance), results for animal participants (34.8%), and environmental findings (60.9%). Conclusions: One Health epidemiology is a rapidly expanding field, but it is characterised by methodological heterogeneity and inconsistent reporting. Future progress depends on developing integrated analytical frameworks that can manage multi-domain complexity and promote better adherence to reporting standards like COHERE. This will enhance methodological rigour, improve study replicability, and strengthen the evidence base for policies that protect human, animal, and ecosystem health. One Health impact statement This article presents a first scoping systematic review of One Health observational epidemiological studies, showing that the One Health field is moving towards a more holistic, integrated era. We conceptually define the One Health epidemiologic unit and provide a critical baseline for researchers and policy makers to advance study design and analytical frameworks. The added value of this work lies in the comprehensive assessment of studies that highlights the urgent need for more integrated One Health reporting and methods, which is essential to strengthening the evidence base for practical solutions. This research was a collaborative effort by a transdisciplinary team of epidemiologists, veterinarians, public health experts, mathematicians, and immunologists. This unique integration of expertise was essential to advancing our understanding of a complex field and identifying the necessary steps for improving future studies and interventions.
Abstract Background: Migratory birds are becoming key vectors in the spread of infectious diseases, including zoonotic pathogens that are resistant to antimicrobials. These diseases can cross geographical boundaries, posing significant threats to global health security. As climate change alters bird populations and migration routes, new pathways for disease transmission are likely to emerge, potentially causing outbreaks in regions where certain diseases were once non-endemic. This presents increased risks to both wildlife and human health. Methods: This mini-review is specific to an understudied transmission pathway of migratory birds as vectors of zoonotic pathogens. It highlights critical knowledge gaps that must be addressed to improve preparedness for bird-mediated disease threats. Results: Addressing the threat posed by bird-mediated disease transmission requires specific, coordinated surveillance strategies that go beyond general calls for enhanced monitoring. Multi-disciplinary expertise integration should encompass ornithologists to determine migration timing and flyway routes, local communities and citizen science networks to optimize their contributions and expand surveillance capacity beyond institutional capabilities, climate scientists to identify environmental drivers of pathogen emergence, public health officials to assess zoonotic transmission risks, veterinarians to monitor wildlife health status, diagnostic laboratories to enable rapid pathogen detection, and genomic sequencing centres to track outbreak dynamics and antimicrobial resistance patterns. Conclusion: Specific international collaborations between institutions along major flyways, integrated surveillance networks involving ornithologists, local communities, veterinarians, public health officials, and diagnostic laboratories, and a One Health approach with concrete surveillance protocols are essential to mitigate the spread of infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) associated with migratory birds. One Health impact statement Enhanced surveillance and international collaboration in adopting a One Health approach to mitigate pathogen transmission by migratory birds, which are disease vectors that easily traverse borders, is essential to mitigate the spread of infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) associated with migratory birds.
Background: This article presents a conceptual Indigenous One Health model to assess health risks that sit at the One Health interface (across animal, human and environmental health) and implement holistic health approaches within Indigenous community settings. Methods: The model is informed by foundational research undertaken at international, national and community-levels that utilised Indigenist approaches, and involved conceptualising animal, human and environmental health considerations together in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health and wellbeing in Australia. Results: The conceptual Indigenous One Health model centres Indigenous cultures, values and knowledge associated with One Health in Indigenous communities and highlights structural needs and principles for implementation. Conclusion: This article discusses key considerations for the future directions of Indigenous One Health, which are required to move the Indigenous One Health research field forward and support health equity in Indigenous communities.
Background: Zoonoses are diseases that are naturally transmitted between animals and humans, and are caused by a wide range of microbial agents. More than 200 zoonotic diseases with varying prevalence and incidence levels have been identified worldwide, and a significant number of these diseases have been reported in Afghanistan. Methods: This study aimed to assess the KAP of male students at Kabul University regarding zoonoses. Therefore, a cross-sectional survey was conducted from April 5 to June 28, 2023. Data were collected from 600 students using a consecutive convenience sampling approach through structured face-to-face interviews. Results: Approximately half of the participants (42.7%) reported that they or their family members had been infected with at least one zoonotic disease, most commonly tuberculosis (16.33%), rabies (7.17%), Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever "CCHF" (4.83%), brucellosis (3.17%), and leishmaniasis (3.17%). Although only 38.2% of the students had previously heard the term "zoonoses", 66.0, 52.0, and 70.5% demonstrated good knowledge, positive attitudes, and good practices regarding zoonotic diseases, respectively. The main gaps identified were the consumption of raw animal products and the unhygienic slaughter of animals. Students from medical sciences faculties were significantly more likely to have good knowledge of zoonoses (OR = 3.42, 95% CI: 1.51-7.77, p < 0.05), while students from rural areas had lower knowledge compared to urban residents (OR = 0.61, 95% CI: 0.39-0.96, p < 0.035). Furthermore, students with positive attitudes were more likely to have good knowledge (OR = 2.31, 95% CI: 1.42-3.76, p < 0.001) and good practices (OR = 2.40, 95% CI: 1.45-3.97, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Considering the observed knowledge gaps and risky behaviors, implementing campus-wide One Health awareness programs, integrating zoonotic disease education into high school and university curricula, and promoting multidisciplinary collaboration among public health, veterinary, and educational sectors are crucial to reduce the risk of zoonotic infections among students, their families, and the broader community.
Despite the crucial role of livestock in Pakistan’s economy, this sector remains largely overlooked, particularly concerning animal feed quality. Substandard and contaminated feed, especially with hazardous aflatoxins, poses significant challenges. This review article aims to assess the impact of aflatoxin contamination in livestock feed on animal health, productivity and food safety with a special focus on Pakistan. Aflatoxins, toxic metabolites produced by certain fungi, are frequently found in feed due to poor storage and handling practices. Their presence not only compromises animal health but also leads to their transfer through animal derived products, such as milk, meat and eggs, posing serious public health risks. Therefore, there is an urgent need for Pakistan’s livestock and food industries to recognize the significance of the issue, and to strengthen efforts to understand, monitor and control feed contamination in order to protect public health and food supply chains. This review synthesizes findings from national and international studies, highlighting the prevalence of aflatoxins in livestock feed and their residues in food products. It also discusses the regulatory standards for aflatoxins, identifies major gaps in compliance in Pakistan, and evaluates various control strategies – ranging from pre-harvest interventions and proper storage to the use of mycotoxin binders and regular feed monitoring. The findings underscore that aflatoxin levels in many feed samples often exceed permissible limits, resulting in adverse health effects on both livestock and human health. The principal conclusion emphasizes the urgent need for implementing aflatoxin control strategies in the feed supply chain. Ensuring safe, high-quality, toxin-free feed not only can improve animal health and productivity, but it will also enhance food safety and promote the opportunities for the export of animal-based products. This article explains how aflatoxins in livestock feed a matter of concern are not just for animal health but also for human health. Aflatoxins in feed also affect the production and health of animal resulting in low- and poor-quality animal products. Chronic exposures of aflatoxins may lead to death of animals. The contaminated feed consumed by the animals is metabolized in the animal’s body and the metabolites are secreted in meat, milk, eggs etc. Human beings consuming these animal-based products become exposed to aflatoxins, which are potent carcinogens, also causing liver damage and immune suppression. Additionally, they cause stunted growth in children as well. The improper storage and handling of aflatoxin contaminated feed contributes to the proliferation of Aspergillus flavus , the aflatoxin-producing fungi, especially in warm and humid climate. This reflects poor agricultural practices and degraded environment which perpetuates the cycle of contamination. Contaminated feed and animal products also have economic implications, like reduced marketability of animal products, trade restrictions on animal products and increased health care cost. By adopting a trans-disciplinary approach, interventions can target the root causes of aflatoxin contamination in livestock feed, promote sustainable agricultural practices and ensure safer food systems for animal and human beings, preserving the environmental integrity.
