Agricultural waste valorization offers a sustainable approach to reducing environmental burdens while generating value-added biomaterials. In this study, golden banana (Musa acuminata) peel waste was utilized as a renewable source of pectin for developing biopolymer-coated gauze. Pectin was extracted using HCl, H2SO4, and CH3COOH at concentrations of 0.5–2.0 N, and the effects of extraction conditions on pectin characteristics and coating properties were systematically investigated. The extracted pectins were characterized in terms of yield, organoleptic properties, methoxyl (MeO) content, anhydrouronic acid (AUA) content, degree of esterification (DE), and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The pectins exhibited MeO contents of 4.10–5.41%, AUA contents of 72.0–77.8%, and DE values of 30.53–42.64%, confirming their classification as low-methoxyl pectins (LMPs). The pectins were subsequently applied as coatings on cotton gauze and evaluated for fluid uptake, water vapor permeability rate (WVPR), surface morphology, and antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. HCl extraction produced the highest pectin yield and, at the selected 1.0 N condition, the strongest antibacterial activity against S. aureus, whereas H2SO4-derived pectin formed comparatively more homogeneous and compact coating layers. The coated gauze exhibited extraction-dependent differences in fluid uptake using 96% ethanol as the test liquid and in water vapor permeability. Overall, the results demonstrate that extraction conditions influenced pectin characteristics and coated-gauze properties, while antibacterial activity at 1.0 N varied among the three extraction acids. Musa acuminata peel waste therefore represents a promising sustainable source of LMP for value-added biopolymer-coated gauze, supporting agricultural waste valorization and circular material utilization.
Disruption of solid waste management during war can generate severe environmental and public health risks, particularly in densely populated urban settings. Since the escalation of hostilities in the Gaza Strip in late 2023, widespread infrastructure destruction, population displacement, and interruption of municipal services have substantially affected waste collection and disposal systems. This study aimed to analyze the spatial distribution and environmental hotspots of disrupted solid waste management in the Gaza Strip using Geographic Information Systems (GIS)-based spatial analysis. A cross-sectional spatial analysis was conducted using field observations, humanitarian datasets, municipal records, and publicly available geospatial information. Spatial point data were compiled, cleaned, georeferenced, and analyzed in a common coordinate reference system. Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) was used as a descriptive method to identify relative hotspot intensity, and overlay analysis was applied to assess spatial coincidence with population density and displacement locations. Geocoded locations of waste accumulation and open burning sites were mapped across the Gaza Strip. Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) was applied to identify spatial hotspots, while overlay analysis was used to examine relationships between waste-related hotspots, population density, and displacement locations. The analysis identified 54 temporary dumpsites across the five governorates, representing an estimated cumulative waste volume of approximately 4,110,000 m3. North Gaza contained the largest reported dumpsites, including a single temporary dumpsite in Jabalia estimated at 2400,000 m3, while Gaza City, Khan Younis, and Rafah exhibited the most pronounced hotspot clustering. Waste accumulation and open burning were detected across all governorates, with high-intensity hotspots strongly associated with densely populated urban areas and displacement camps where municipal waste services were severely disrupted. Open burning hotspots frequently overlapped with waste accumulation zones, indicating areas of compounded environmental stress. Governorate-level analysis demonstrated substantial spatial variability in hotspot intensity and distribution, reflecting differences in population concentration, accessibility, infrastructure damage, and displacement pressure. The analysis was intended to identify relative spatial concentrations rather than estimate absolute waste quantities or infer causal relationships. The findings highlight the significant environmental consequences of war-related disruption of waste management systems and demonstrate the value of GIS-based approaches for identifying priority environmental risk zones under complex emergency conditions. Spatial hotspot analysis can support evidence-based humanitarian and environmental response planning by improving prioritization of emergency waste management interventions in conflict-affected settings. Future research integrating temporal environmental monitoring and health-related indicators is recommended to better assess the long-term environmental and public health implications of disrupted waste management in Gaza.
Uncontrolled disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW), particularly waste with a high organic content, represents a major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in many developing countries. To support evidence-based planning, reliable estimates of the climate benefits associated with alternative waste management strategies are required. This study quantified GHG emissions from solid waste sectors of Jordan and Egypt using the GIZ GHG Calculator, an Excel-based life cycle assessment tool. Country-specific scenarios were developed using the best available primary data to represent existing waste management practices and future national strategies.The analysis showed that informal recycling provides a substantial contribution to GHG mitigation through the recovery of recyclable materials, with Egypt achieving greater emission savings than Jordan due to the stronger activity of the informal sector, including the diversion of organic waste for livestock feed. The most advanced waste management scenarios reduced net GHG emissions by up to 19% in Jordan and 67% in Egypt compared with the Business as usual (BAU) systems. In Jordan, sanitary landfilling significantly improves environmental performance but becomes the largest remaining source of emissions. The planned development of a mechanical-biological treatment (MBT) facility plays a critical role in diverting MSW from landfills and mitigating emissions. In Egypt, the greatest mitigation potential is achieved by expanding collection services, eliminating open dumping, and directing the additional collected waste to resource recovery and treatment facilities. The findings demonstrate that maximizing GHG mitigation requires waste management strategies that reflect national conditions, existing infrastructure, and institutional priorities.
Sustainable waste management in ethnic communities remains a persistent challenge due to geographical constraints, limited infrastructure, and the complex interaction of socio-cultural and governance factors. Existing studies have predominantly focused on technical and behavioral dimensions, with limited attention to the relationships among governance systems, cultural capital, and community participation. This study examined sustainable waste management behavior and developed a community-based framework for ethnic communities in Nan Province, Thailand. A sequential mixed-methods design was employed with integration occurring at the interpretation stage. Qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews with eight key informants from three local administrative organizations (LAOs) and analyzed using thematic content analysis. Quantitative data were collected from 420 ethnic community residents and analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, multiple regression, and mediation analysis. The regression model explained 20.7% of the variance in sustainable waste management behavior (R2 = 0.207). Perceived information exposure was the strongest positive predictor (β = 0.293, p < .001), whereas environmental knowledge showed a small but significant negative association (β = −0.128, p = .005). A statistically significant indirect association between attitudes and behavior through perceived information exposure was also observed (B = 0.085, 95% bootstrap CI [0.033, 0.148]). Qualitative findings highlighted governance continuity, cultural leadership, community participation, and locally embedded practices as important dimensions of local waste management. Integration of both strands informed the provisional Socio-Ecological Synergy Framework, linking institutional, socio-cultural, and behavioral dimensions of sustainable waste management.
This study investigates the mechanical upcycling of degummed fibroin-rich silk waste fibers generated following sericin extraction through chemical-free mechanical post-processing, including fiber opening, spinning, and fabric manufacturing. A tilt-barb pre-carding system was implemented to facilitate fiber opening, separation, and processability, requiring an additional energy demand of 110 kWh per ton. Qualitative observations showed a more open and aligned fiber-web morphology following tilt-barb pre-carding, enabling subsequent carding. The treated fibers exhibited suitable mechanical properties, while SEM observations revealed well-separated filaments with no obvious continuous surface coating. Among the yarns evaluated, the 30/2 Ne plied yarn showed relatively high tenacity and elongation together with the lowest measured unevenness. Among the specific fabric constructions tested, differences were observed in compactness, tensile properties, and pilling resistance. The 30/2 Ne plied plain fabric exhibited the highest measured warp tensile strength (692.64 ± 2.55 N) and elongation (56.33 ± 1.16%). These results represent comparisons among the tested constructions and do not isolate the independent effects of yarn count, plying, or weave structure. Collectively, these findings suggest that chemical-free post-degumming mechanical upcycling provides a practical approach for transforming fibroin-rich silk waste into value-added textile products, with the potential to support waste valorization, improve resource efficiency, and contribute to circular textile manufacturing for more sustainable textile production.
Viable weed seeds in dairy manure and anaerobic digestates applied to agricultural land as liquid fertilizer can increase the risk of weed dissemination. This study evaluated screw press separation as a physical pretreatment method for removing weed seeds from the liquid fractions of dairy manure and digestate. Ten weed species with different seed sizes and shapes were characterized, and seed passage through wedge-wire screens with slot widths of 0.75, 0.50, and 0.25 mm was examined using dry sieving and screw press separation with simulated dairy slurry. Seedling emergence from the separated liquid fraction was evaluated using dairy manure and digestate spiked with Rumex obtusifolius and Phalaris arundinacea. The sieving rate coefficient was calculated using a discrete element method simulation, and operational performance was assessed using plant-scale tests. Seed passage during screw press separation was considerably lower than that during dry sieving, indicating that cake layer formation and retention within the solid matrix limited seed transfer to the liquid fraction. A 0.50-mm screen prevented the emergence of P. arundinacea from the liquid fraction, while a 0.25-mm screen prevented the passage of all tested seeds. The DEM-derived sieving rate coefficient, combined with dry sieve passage, explained the seed transfer to the filtrate with an R2of 0.853. Although reducing the slot width to 0.25 mm increased energy intensity, screw–press separation required substantially less energy than thermal inactivation. These results suggest that screw press separation can reduce weed seed contamination in liquid fertilizers by transferring seeds to the solid fraction for subsequent treatments. (250 words).
The development of sustainable composite materials mitigates environmental impact through valorisation of agricultural waste, while conserving finite resources, and fostering a circular economy. This study reports the use of powdered seed coat derived from discarded Manilkara zapota (chikoo) seeds as a bio-based particulate filler in basalt fiber-reinforced epoxy composites. Composites containing 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 weight (wt) % chikoo seed coat powder (CHSP) were fabricated by hand lay-up followed by compression moulding, and their mechanical performance was systematically evaluated. The incorporation of 1 wt% CHSP significantly improved the mechanical performance of the basalt-epoxy composites, increasing tensile strength by 28.6%, tensile modulus by 13.6%, flexural strength by 22.4%, and hardness by 48.5% relative to CHSP0. In contrast, the highest impact strength was obtained at 3 wt% CHSP, corresponding to a 25.9% improvement over CHSP0. Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Dynamic Mechanical Analysis provided evidence of enhanced interfacial adhesion and more efficient stress transfer in basalt-epoxy composites reinforced with CHSP filler, leading to improved stiffness and load-bearing performance. These findings establish CHSP as a mechanically competitive, low-cost, and sustainable agricultural waste-derived filler for basalt-epoxy composites, offering strong potential for applications demanding high energy absorption, improved tensile properties, and moderate structural stiffness, including automotive, sporting, and protective gear equipment sectors.
Purpose: Tourism is a vital driver of economic development, yet it also generates complex environmental externalities that extend beyond local boundaries. This study investigates the environmental spillover effects of tourism in Vietnam, focusing on its impact on provincial waste management systems.Design/methodology/approach: Using spatial econometric models and panel data from 63 provinces between 2013 and 2018, we assess both direct and indirect effects of tourism and related socio-economic factors.Findings: The results reveal that while tourism positively influences local waste management through increased investment and infrastructure, it simultaneously imposes negative spillover effects on neighboring regions. Additionally, income growth, education, and access to clean water are found to enhance waste management outcomes, whereas renewable energy adoption shows a short-term negative impact due to transitional inefficiencies.Originality/value: These findings underscore the need for coordinated regional policies to mitigate environmental spillovers and promote sustainable tourism. Policy recommendations include the development of interprovincial waste management systems, integration of waste-to-energy technologies, and targeted educational programs to foster environmental awareness. By aligning tourism growth with environmental sustainability, this study offers actionable insights for policymakers aiming to balance economic benefits with ecological resilience.
Disposable sanitary napkins are a large and growing source of non-biodegradable waste worldwide, and in many countries, their disposal remains poorly managed. In India, an estimated 113,000 tons reach landfills each year, and on-site incineration has become the default disposal method across institutional and public settings. Unlike large municipal incineration facilities, these decentralized units operate with little oversight and almost no published emission data. This review evaluates the performance of decentralized incinerators used for sanitary napkin disposal in India, focusing on unit design, operating temperature, combustion efficiency, ash characteristics, and flue-gas emissions in relation to established regulatory and health-based standards, with practices in other countries used as context. Many commercial units are rated to operate below the 850–1100 °C range that the World Health Organization associates with compliant control of dioxin and furan emissions. They also commonly lack air-pollution controls and are not subject to mandatory emission monitoring. The potential presence of toxic metals and other hazardous constituents in ash residues further highlights the need for ash characterization, leaching assessment, and regulated disposal. The review concludes that decentralized incineration is viable only with enforceable design and emission standards and as one part of a broader waste-management approach.
Silver nanoparticles are among the most widely used nanomaterials. On a global level, approximately 80% of the engineered nanomaterials are disposed into landfills as a final sink. However, information on their behavior and distribution within the landfill environment remains limited. The objective of this study is to analyze the fate and partitioning of silver nanoparticles in landfills using a group experimental lysimeter that were operated under various conditions. Nine lysimeters containing municipal solid waste with varying concentrations of silver nanoparticles (ranged from 0 to 18.85 mg of silver/kg of waste) were operated for 26 weeks. The effects of leaching recycling and liner type including clay and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) were also investigated. The results showed that the main fraction of AgNP remained bound to the solid waste matrix (79%–93%). Leachate recirculation has led to increased particle mobility and migration through the liner. A portion of the silver nanoparticles was found in the leachate, ranged from 0% to 26%. On the other hand, the accumulation of silver nanoparticles in the clay liner, ranged from 7% to 15%, exhibited a clear vertical gradient, with highest concentration found in the top layer of the liner. In contrast, HDPE liners almost completely prevented leachate penetration. Future studies on a pilot scale should be conducted to gain better understanding on AgNP behavior in landfills.
Household waste segregation is essential for sustainable municipal solid waste management in rapidly urbanizing secondary cities. This mixed-methods study examined behavioral drivers, institutional barriers, and frontline waste-worker perspectives on household waste segregation in Rajshahi City Corporation, Bangladesh. Data were collected from 384 cluster-sampled households, complemented by 20 key informant interviews and 15 in-depth interviews. Survey results showed that City Corporation staff collected waste from 88.3% of households and 61.5% received daily collection; however, only 31.2% currently separated recyclables, while 63.0% intended to do so. Multivariable OLS regression showed that behavioral intention was significantly predicted by moral norms (B = 0.340, p < .001), motivation/incentives (B = 0.175, p < .001), and TPB attitude (B = 0.186, p = .012). Logistic regression indicated that current segregation was associated with intention (AOR = 2.86), perceived behavioral control (AOR = 1.45), service quality (AOR = 1.48), and awareness/knowledge (AOR = 1.96), while perceived barriers reduced segregation odds (AOR = 0.61). Qualitative findings confirmed infrastructure deficits, manpower shortages, weak public compliance, and occupational risks for cleaners. The study highlights the need for integrated behavioral, institutional, and worker-sensitive waste-management reforms.
Digital platforms are seen as new nodes in the circular construction supply chain that make reusable materials visible and discoverable, which facilitates their reuse. This follows the principle of the circular economy in which products that have the performance to be reused are reclaimed at the end of one project and used by another stakeholder, such as an architect in a new project. Digital marketplaces have become an important area of research, especially for matchmaking. Yet much of the literature focuses on what data are needed, what user interface features are needed, and how the database should be structured. Very little is known about what happens behind the interface and how operators actually use these platforms, so operational realities and market conditions remain partly unknown. To address this, we interviewed 13 relevant stakeholders to understand the issues of operating the physical stock and the digital interface. Our results show that matchmaking is the dominant business use case, but not the only one. Other models exist, but platforms rarely support them. We also find a disconnect between platforms and business models and a misalignment with operational needs for reclaiming, listing and selling products. These factors create an operational viability gap that hampers reuse. Overall, our findings challenge techno-optimistic views. We argue for business model-based digital platforms (as opposed to forcing platforms into existing business models), supported by digital tools that automate and remove operational bottlenecks.
Household solid waste-sorting practices are fundamental to improving municipal solid waste management in developing urban areas. This study employs multiple linear regression to examine associations between socioeconomic factors, waste management services, and infrastructure and household solid waste-sorting practices in Malawian cities. Model 1 shows an R2 of 0.625, indicating that predictors explain 62.5% of the variation in perceived waste generation; Model 2, with an R2 of 0.654, indicates that predictors explain 65.4% of the variation in perceived waste-sorting volume; and Model 3 shows an R2 of 0.510, implying that predictors explain 51.0% of the variation in self-reported household solid waste-sorting practices. Coefficients reveal a notable shift in self-reported household solid waste-sorting practices. While household size_1 (β = 0.2970, p < .001) is the strong predictor of perceived waste generation (Model 1), occupation (β = 0.4411, p < .001) (Model 2), and access to recycling facilities (β = 0.3502, p < .001) (Model 3) are the strongest predictors of perceived waste-sorting volume and self-reported household solid waste-sorting practices, respectively. However, waste collection frequency was not significantly associated with self-reported household solid waste-sorting practices in this sample and model specification (β = −0.01816, p = .621 > 0.05), suggesting that simply increasing the regularity of collection services is ineffective at encouraging self-reported household waste-sorting practices. Therefore, establishing localised recycling facilities rather than solely increasing waste collection frequency, providing households with dedicated sorting bins to reduce physical barriers, and implementing specialised training programmes on waste sorting can encourage household solid waste-sorting practices.
The leather industry significantly contributes to Bangladesh's economy; however, tannery waste poses critical environmental and public health challenges. Despite efforts to relocate tanneries and invest in technology, sustainable waste management remains constrained by complex, interdependent barriers that have not been systematically structured or prioritized. This study integrates Delphi-CVR to validate barrier selection, ISM- MICMAC to identify structural relationships and driving–dependence power among the identified barriers, and AHP and TOPSIS to determine their relative importance. Descriptive results indicate that monitoring and performance, environmental issues, and choice of technology are perceived as the most significant barriers. Reliability analysis confirms strong internal consistency. Structural modeling using ISM–MICMAC reveals that policy, legislation, and regulation are the primary upstream drivers, while environmental issues emerge as the most dependent outcome. In contrast, AHP prioritization assigns the highest weights to environmental issues (0.191), technology choice (0.156), and behavioral factors (0.131), indicating that operational decision-makers prioritize immediate environmental and technological concerns over systemic policy drivers. TOPSIS results rank industrial material and construction use (CC = 1.000) as the most preferred strategy, followed by bioenergy recovery, with advanced resource recovery being the least preferred under current conditions. The findings indicate that effective management of tannery waste involves not only technological challenges but also governance and policy issues. By combining structural modeling and multi-criteria prioritization, this study provides a new decision-support tool for identifying leverage points and informing policy options. While grounded in the Bangladesh context, the framework is transferable to industrial waste systems in other emerging economies.
The present study evaluated the technical, economic, and environmental feasibility of ZnCl2-activated almond shell biochar (BA-Zn) for nitrate removal from a synthetic aqueous solution using fixed-bed adsorption. BA-Zn exhibited an adsorption capacity of 16.1 mg/g. However, the breakthrough occurred rapidly (0.5 min), resulting in low effective bed utilization and an overall removal efficiency of 5%. Breakthrough curves were adequately described by the Yoon–Nelson, Bohart–Adams, and Yan models (R2 > 0.98), supporting preliminary hydraulic scale-up analysis under laboratory conditions. The techno-economic analysis indicated that the process was not economically feasible under current Colombian reagent prices, although feasibility improved under low-cost reagent scenarios with payback periods of 5–7 years. Life cycle assessment identified biochar production and chemical activation as the dominant environmental hotspots, mainly due to non-renewable energy consumption and global warming impacts. These findings indicate that although BA-Zn shows adsorption potential, substantial optimization of column design, reagent consumption, and energy efficiency is required before practical large-scale application.
Municipal waste policies increasingly use digital tools to support circular economy programmes, but the people who sort household waste are not always the people who can independently use digital municipal services. This pre-implementation, exploratory cross-sectional pilot studied 128 selected multigenerational households in Keelek Subdistrict Municipality, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. The analysis distinguished two domains: caregiver technology acceptance as a perceived digital-readiness outcome and self-reported waste separation behaviour as a self-reported sorting outcome. Among the 88 caregivers who provided a rating of their child's digital skill, greater caregiver-reported child proxy support was associated with higher caregiver technology acceptance after adjustment for child digital skill, perceived technology barriers, age, education, income, and village. This association remained in a child-reference-reduced technology-acceptance sensitivity score, whereas child digital skill alone was not significantly associated with technology acceptance. The CDS–CTM–TA indirect association was not statistically supported because bootstrap confidence intervals crossed zero in both primary and sensitivity specifications. In the self-reported sorting domain, environmental awareness and waste-management knowledge were positively associated with higher self-reported waste separation behaviour, whereas technology acceptance showed no detectable adjusted association with self-reported waste separation. Residual diagnostics similarly indicated that an apparent unadjusted TA–WSB association became negligible after covariate adjustment. These findings support treating digital readiness and waste-sorting outcomes as distinct evaluation domains in future smart-waste studies. This distinction is particularly important when objective platform-use indicators and waste-audit data are not yet available.
Food waste represents a complex environmental and ethical challenge, and Early Childhood Education and Care Institutions (ECECIs) can play a key role in mitigating it due to the large number of meals they serve daily and the central role of everyday food service routines in food waste generation and prevention. This study quantifies food waste in four Norwegian ECECIs and evaluates its climate impact, while also exploring practitioners' strategies for waste reduction. Using a waste compositional analysis approach over ca. 7000 meals among 180 children and 44 staff, average food waste amounted to 52.8 g per capita per day, with plate waste representing the largest share. There was substantial variation in food waste among ECECIs, particularly in edible plate waste. Climate impact analysis revealed annual emissions ranging from 22 to 46 kg CO₂ eq per capita, with beef, despite its low waste volume, being a major contributor due to its high emission intensity. Qualitative interviews with nine practitioners identified five main strategies for waste reduction: smart reuse of leftovers, planning and evaluation, pedagogical involvement of children, use of other levels of the food web (e.g., composting, feeding farm animals), and attitude shaping rooted in traditional and sustainability values. These findings highlight the environmental relevance of food waste in ECECIs and the importance of combining organizational practices with everyday food-related routines to effectively reduce food waste.
Sequential leaching was performed on 29 green liquor dreg (GLD) samples from 15 Swedish pulp and paper mills. Results show that element leaching primarily occurred during acidic and reducing conditions with the exception for a few elements present as water soluble salts. Most elements are thus likely associated with carbonates and Fe/Mn-oxyhydroxides, or to a lesser extent associated with stable crystal phases as they have very low leaching. In general, leaching patterns were similar for all samples indicating that all samples likely belong to the same sample population. This study shows that Ag, Cr, Cu and Zn, that have previously been pointed out as elements of potential concern when using GLD as a mine waste remediant, are not a concern when accounting for the geochemical environment. On the other hand, Ba, Cd, Ni and Sr are elements that needs to be monitored when using GLD as they leach significantly with Ba and Cd leaching the most during acidic conditions. They are not necessarily a problem when considering the economic, environmental and practical problems Sweden face in remediating acidic mining waste and GLD disposal as the benefit of using GLD is very high compared to the environmental impact from these four elements. Use of GLD for mining site reclamation is also more consistent with circularity compared to traditional reclamation methods.
Hospital waste management is still a challenging issue because of the dangerous nature of medical waste and the high pace at which it is produced. The review gives an insight into the current trends in hospital waste management systems with the emphasis made on the treatment technology and waste management process, regulations and digitalization solutions. A systematic literature review according to PRISMA principles using publications from Scopus within the period of 2020 to May 2025 was conducted. In addition, bibliometric analysis using Biblioshiny and VOSViewer was performed. It turns out that the latest technologies related to artificial intelligence, IoT, blockchains and data analytics can significantly help with better waste segregation, tracing, forecasting and operational management. It should be noted that despite the progress achieved, the waste management system of hospitals still lacks integration because of the diversity of the legislation and poor separation practices, infrastructure and lack of systems integration.
Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) is a central urban sustainability challenge, particularly in lower-income contexts where increasing waste volumes coincide with limited infrastructure, environmental pressures, public health risks, and social constraints. Yet municipal solid waste (MSW) is also a resource stream. Through thermal, hydrothermal, and biological treatment, MSW can be converted into energy, nutrients, and value-added materials while reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and diverting waste from landfills. Resource recovery and recycling extend the function of MSWM beyond collection and disposal, enabling materials, energy, and nutrients to be recaptured in line with circular economy (CE) principles and the sustainable development goals (SDGs). However, selecting suitable treatment options remains difficult because assessments often apply inconsistent criteria and insufficiently account for feedstock variability, local management conditions, and environmental, economic, and social trade-offs. This review synthesizes global advances in MSW-to-resource technologies and develops an integrated comparison of thermal, hydrothermal, and biological processes. The assessment links process suitability and technology readiness with MSW characteristics, economic viability, environmental impact, air pollution risks, and social acceptance. Advanced thermal processes can achieve electricity recovery of 544–816 kWh per tonne of MSW and reduce waste mass by 80–90%. Biological processes may offer stronger economic and environmental benefits, higher community acceptance, and greater technology readiness where organic waste streams are suitable. Together, these findings identify source segregation, revenue generation, public-private partnerships, public awareness and education, and carbon capture and storage as key enablers for aligning MSWM technology choices with CE objectives and local implementation conditions.
