جامعه شناسی کاربردی

Introduction The concept of place belonging defined as the emotional and cognitive bond between individuals and their environment is a crucial element of urban sustainability and social cohesion. This significance is amplified in multicultural cities, where diverse ethnic, cultural, and religious groups coexist, making the negotiation of identity and attachment a complex process. This study investigated the sense of place belonging among the residents of Rezvanshahr, a city in northern Iran recognized as one of the nation's most ethnically diverse urban centers, primarily inhabited by Gilak, Talesh, and Turk communities. The research addressed a critical gap in the literature by moving beyond physical determinants of attachment to explore how socio-cultural dynamics influenced place belonging in a pluralistic context. Drawing primarily on Marco Antonsich's comprehensive theoretical framework, which conceptualizes belonging not merely as a personal feeling of being 'at home' but as a multidimensional phenomenon shaped by autobiographical, relational, cultural, economic, and legal factors, this study had two main objectives. First, it aimed to empirically measure the overall level of place belonging among the citizens. Second, and more importantly, it sought to analyze the relationship between this sense of belonging and several key social variables: social vitality (as an indicator of positive social interaction), the spirit of participation in urban management, trust in urban management institutions, and perceptions of urban violence. By focusing on Rezvanshahr, this study offers valuable insights into the interplay between social capital, governance, and place attachment in a context characterized by significant cultural diversity. Materials & Methods This quantitative research utilized a survey method with a structured questionnaire. The statistical population comprised all citizens of Rezvanshahr. A sample of 400 respondents was selected through random cluster sampling across 11 neighborhoods of the city. The validity of the instrument was established through face validity, while reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha. The coefficients for all main variables—including sense of belonging, social vitality, participation, perceptions of violence, and trust—ranged from 0.72 to 0.93, indicating good internal consistency. Data analysis was conducted by using SPSS, employing descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlation coefficient, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and multiple regression analysis. Discussion of Results & Conclusion The findings indicated that the overall sense of place belonging in Rezvanshahr was relatively high, suggesting a robust emotional connection between citizens and their city, despite its diversity. The results revealed significant positive correlations between a sense of belonging and social vitality, participation in urban management, and trust in municipal institutions. This suggested that citizens’ emotional investment in the city deepened when they found joy in their daily interactions, felt that their contributions to city affairs were valued, and perceived local authorities as competent and honest. Conversely, a significant negative correlation was observed between urban violence and sense of belonging, highlighting how insecurity and social disorder could diminish feelings of safety and belonging. Significant differences in sense of belonging were found across demographic variables, particularly among age groups, where older citizens reported a higher sense of belonging. Additionally, differences were noted in education levels and, notably, ethnicity. Gilak respondents exhibited the highest sense of belonging followed by Talesh, while Turk respondents reported the lowest. These variations suggested differing levels of social integration and recognition that warranted further investigation. No significant differences were detected based on gender or religion. The regression analysis demonstrated that the independent variables collectively explained a substantial portion (45%) of the variance in sense of place belonging, confirming the model's strong explanatory power. These findings align closely with Antonsich's theoretical dimensions. Social vitality and participation reflect the relational and cultural factors that enhance an individual's connection to place. The significance of ethnicity highlights the cultural dimension, wherein language and shared identity serve as key anchors for belonging. Trust in urban management relates to the legal and social aspects of feeling secure and is recognized by systems of authority. Moreover, urban violence directly undermines feelings of safety and stability, which are essential for the autobiographical and economic continuity of place attachment. The study concludes that a sense of belonging is not inherent but a social construct actively shaped at the intersection of power, identity, and space. Therefore, fostering social vitality, encouraging genuine citizen participation, building trust in municipal institutions, and implementing effective policies to mitigate urban violence are not merely administrative tasks; they are essential strategies for enhancing place belonging and managing social cohesion in multicultural urban settings like Rezvanshahr.

Introduction Social and political hope is not merely an individual emotion but an intersubjective experience rooted in cultural and political contexts, shaping both human agency and visions of the future. In contemporary Iran, the landscape of hope has been transformed by shifting dominant discourses—from the justice-oriented discourse of the 2000s to the narrative of survival and resistance in the late 2010s—further exacerbated by economic crises, widening inequality, and deepening generational divides. National surveys confirm a tangible decline in hope over the past decade. The Third Wave of Social Capital Measurement (Ministry of Interior, 2018) reports a significant drop in institutional trust and optimism. Critically, the National Elites Foundation (2021) indicates that the desire to emigrate among top university students has surged from 31% in 2015 to over 52%, signaling a profound "brain drain" and a lived reality of hopelessness with severe consequences for civic participation and social cohesion. This research was motivated by a central paradox: a decline in socio-political hope among university students, who were simultaneously immersed in an environment designed to foster critical thinking, theoretical debate, and meaning-making. This contradiction—between engaging with analytical concepts in a dialogic space and personally experiencing despair—lay at the core of our inquiry. While extensive quantitative research existed on macro-level indicators of hope, the qualitative, lived experience of this paradox at the micro-level remained underexplored. To address this gap, the present study adopted a phenomenological approach to explore the following research question: How do students experience and give meaning to socio-political hope and hopelessness within the context of their daily lives and the university environment? The aim was not statistical generalization but rather an in-depth exploration of the subjective and meaning-making processes that occurred at the intersection of the university's critical discourse and the structural constraints of the broader society. Thus, the university was conceptualized not merely as a place of learning, but as a crucial intermediate field—where experiences of possibility or blockage and justice or inequality were directly encountered and negotiated. Materials & Methods This study employed Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to explore students' lived experiences of socio-political hope. IPA was particularly well suited for examining how individuals made meaning of significant experiences within specific contexts (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). Participants were 12 social science students (8 women, 4 men) from Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, who were selected through criterion-based, maximum-variation sampling. Inclusion criteria required at least 3 years of university experience, analytical literacy in socio-political issues, and a tangible experience of either hope or hopelessness. Data were collected through in-depth, semi-structured interviews lasting 60–90 minutes, which were conducted during a period of political transition following a national incident. Analysis followed the systematic, idiographic steps of IPA: multiple readings, initial noting, development of emergent themes, and search for connections across themes. To ensure trustworthiness, we employed member checking, maintained a reflexive journal and an audit trail, and provided thick descriptions of the context. Ethical protocols, including informed consent and confidentiality, were strictly observed. Discussion of Results & Conclusion The analysis revealed that the students' lived experience of hope was not a static state, but a paradoxical, fluid process shaped at the intersection of critical awareness and structural constraint. 5 main themes emerged from the interpretative phenomenological analysis. First, students' hope was continually eroded by encounters with injustice and instability. This was experienced not as an abstract condition, but as immediate, lived moments of blocked possibility. For female students, gender discrimination manifested in everyday academic settings, creating a sense of diminished worth. Relative deprivation was felt as a perceived gap between oneself and more privileged peers, rendering hope conditional and distant. Furthermore, socio-economic and political instability created a pervasive sense of a "shaking ground", turning the future into an opaque and unpredictable horizon, thereby making long-term planning and sustained hope impossible. Second, this context gave rise to a paradoxical form of hope. Students experienced a painful gap between their critical awareness—gained through university education—and their perceived powerlessness to act. This transformed hope from a motivating force into a burdensome awareness, a state of suspended agency, in which they could neither fully engage nor completely detach. This "painful hope" represented a central contradiction: the very tools that sharpened their understanding of social problems also deepened their sense of futility. Third, in the absence of reliable official structures, students constructed meaning and sustained hope through a multi-source network. Family and close relationships served as an emotional anchor, restoring a sense of stability. Selective, individualized religiosity offered solace and a future-oriented sense of divine justice. The digital space acted as a double-edged field, simultaneously fueling hope through inspirational content and eroding it through social comparison and exposure to crisis-laden news. Consequently, students often retreated to informal online spaces as sanctuaries where they could express themselves freely and find peer support, away from institutional pressures. Fourth, the data revealed fluid patterns of political belonging. These ranged from traditional belonging based on historical identity, through conditional belonging dependent on perceived governmental performance, to a profound sense of political non‑belonging characterized by feeling unheard and unrepresented. Finally, as a compensatory response to macro‑level hopelessness, students engaged in micro‑activism. This took the form of small‑scale ethical acts, informal charity, and what might be termed "small hopes"—fleeting yet vital experiences of making a tangible, if minor, difference in someone's life. This micro‑level agency did not aim to change structural conditions, but rather to preserve psychological continuity and a minimal sense of efficacy. This study concluded that socio‑political hope among these students was a paradoxical phenomenon suspended between the analytical awareness fostered by the university and the experienced constraints of the broader social structure. The findings challenged simplistic cause‑and‑effect models, revealing hope as a multi‑layered process shaped at the intersection of individual agency, institutional dynamics (with the university functioning as a competitive field), and macro‑structural instability. The university itself played a dual role: it empowered students with critical literacy while simultaneously exposing them to internal inequities that could fuel despair. This gave rise to the central paradox whereby increased critical consciousness coexisted with a diminished sense of agency, resulting in a "painful" or "suspended" hope. In response, students turned to multi‑source meaning‑making and micro‑acts of agency to sustain a livable present. The study underscored the need to move beyond quantitative indicators and to understand hope as a lived, paradoxical experience if meaningful interventions for rebuilding it are to be designed.

Introduction The prevalence and recurrence of crime are significant concerns for various societies, including Iran. Among the groups affected, the immigrant youth are known to commit a portion of these crimes. This study aimed to develop and describe a comprehensive social work model for the social reintegration of immigrant youth involved in recidivism. A careful review of domestic research and literature reveals a gap in the availability of a specific, codified intervention model for the social reintegration of offenders, both within prisons and as part of society at large. The model proposed in this study adopted a social work perspective, employing a systemic approach rooted in a profound understanding of the experiences of individuals affected by crime and recidivism. Ultimately, the final design incorporated insights and recommendations from experts in the field, paving the way for the development of an effective and contextually relevant empirical model. Materials & Methods This research employed a qualitative methodology. To achieve the primary objectives of the study, a 3-stage research process was implemented. In the first stage, the study investigated immigrant youths’ understanding of the recurrence of criminal behaviors and their various dimensions. The sample population for this phase consisted of 26 immigrant youths involved in theft and drug-related crimes, all of whom had a history of recidivism and were incarcerated at the time of the research in 2023. Evidence, including daily interactions with various convicts and insights from colleagues, indicated that drug-related and theft-related offenses were most prevalent among immigrant youths. Consequently, the criteria for inclusion in the study were being involved in drug crimes or theft, being an immigrant, belonging to the demographic convicted youth, and having a history of recidivism. In the second stage, the perspectives of experts regarding considerations and interventions relevant to social integration were explored in response to the main research question. This section included a sample size of 10 experts. Data collection in both stages was conducted through semi-structured interviews. The collected data were subsequently analyzed by using theoretical coding and thematic analysis. In the third stage, the findings from the first two sections were integrated and professional judgment was used to explore various dimensions related to the main research question. Ultimately, the case management model was selected as the representative framework for social work aimed at the social reintegration of the target group. Discussion of Results & Conclusion The case management model emerged from the integration of qualitative research findings aimed at addressing the primary research question. The insights gained from the first part of the study, which focused on understanding the recidivism process among immigrant youth, served as the foundation for outlining the various stages of case management. Meanwhile, the findings from the second part, which examined considerations and interventions pertinent to the social reintegration of immigrant youth, informed the descriptions of interventions tailored to this target group. According to the case management model, the social reintegration process comprised 7 main stages: case finding, psychosocial assessment, goal setting and planning, intervention and action, monitoring and evaluation, follow-up, and community-based care interventions. Based on these stages, social worker’s interventions for reintegrating the target group unfolded across two primary phases: during incarceration and after release. This approach emphasized the continuity of the case management process as individual’s transition from prison to community reintegration. It could be concluded that the case management model was applicable not only to individuals convicted of theft and drug-related offenses, but also to a broader range of offenders, who required social work interventions. By considering the specific contexts of these individuals, the model could facilitate improvements in their circumstances and promote successful reintegration into society.

IntroductionOne of the most prominent processes of religious socialization in Islamic countries, including Iran, is active participation in informal religious classes that have been held for several years. These classes provide instruction on religious ideas, beliefs, principles, and rituals. Typically, the majority of participants in these informal sessions are married women from diverse age groups, educational backgrounds, and social classes. Despite their daily household responsibilities, these women willingly engage in the classes on a part-time basis. However, there is a lack of consensus regarding the effects and implications of such religious education within society. Most analyses have approached these classes from an external ideological standpoint, relying on the perspectives of researchers, religious experts, and cultural policymakers. Consequently, the varied impacts of these classes from the internal viewpoints of the participants themselves have not been adequately explored. It is crucial to evaluate the effects and outcomes of these classes by considering the perspectives of those who actively engage in them. Given these gaps in understanding, this article aimed to describe and analyze the perceptions and experiences of Lari women attending Quranic classes from a phenomenological perspective. The women involved in this study participated in such classes during the years 2019-2020. The primary research questions were: How do Lari women participating in Quranic classes perceive and articulate their world? What insights do these women have into their social and emotional relationships, and how, influenced by religious concepts and beliefs, do they establish, regulate, and frame their interactions with others? Additionally, how do these women express and interpret the tangible effects of religious education in their actions and mental states? Materials & MethodsThe research employed a phenomenological method and was regarded as the most suitable approach for exploring the depth and essence of experience and the meaning of religion as a complex phenomenon. This study utilized an empirical phenomenology approach, consisting of 7 fundamental steps: defining the research question, conducting a preliminary study, selecting a theoretical framework to guide the design, examining first-order constructs (and bracketing existing theories), developing second-order constructs, controlling for unintended effects, and relating the findings to existing scientific literature and the empirical field. To reach women participating in these classes, purposive and non-random sampling techniques were employed. Subsequently, open-ended, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 women involved in the classes. To uphold ethical standards and enhance the validity of the research, the study objectives were discussed with the interviewees prior to data collection. They were assured that their identities would remain confidential. The interviews lasted an average of 40 to 60 minutes, with individual sentences serving as the unit of data analysis. After the data collection process, the key themes from the participants' responses were conceptualized and subsequently categorized at a more abstract level. To validate the findings, the final themes were presented back to the interviewees, who confirmed that the results aligned with their experiences. Discussion of Results & ConclusionThe youngest participant in the study was 35 years old, while the oldest was 70. Most participants were married housewives with either a diploma or a bachelor's degree. Only 3 women possessed a university education—holding qualifications ranging from a higher diploma to a master's degree. Among the group, one participant was employed and another was retired from a career in education. The women attended Quran classes intermittently or continuously, with some exclusively participating in neighborhood classes, while others also attended sessions at religious venues, such as Hosseiniyeh, Mahdiyyah, and Maktab (traditional Quranic classes). Based on the analysis of their statements, the participants' religious perceptions and experiences were organized into 6 main categories: 1) Living within Quranic boundaries; 2) Expanding the scope and enhancing the quality of social interactions among women's groups; 3) Finding meaning in life and achieving a sense of self-fulfillment; 4) Engaging in charitable economic activities; 5) Belief in sacred symbols and their efficacy; and 6) Experiencing discomfort at customary (non-religious) ceremonies and venues. The study findings indicated that, following their participation in Quranic classes, the women exhibited increased commitment to obligatory religious practices (Vajebat), including prayer, fasting, hijab, and khums (donating one-fifth of agricultural products to the poor). Their commitment also extended to recommended practices (Mostahabbat), such as performing non-obligatory prayers and fasting. While these women largely considered themselves devoted to religious moral obligations, there were instances—especially during events like wedding celebrations—when they either overlooked these obligations or failed to fulfill them despite having the desire to do so. In Quranic classes, values, such as honesty, sincerity, empathy, altruism, and continual reminders of religious teachings, instilled a sense of meaning, peace, and purpose in life for the participants. These women reported significant emotional growth and positive outcomes as a result of their involvement in these classes. Contrary to popular belief, they engaged in economic activities alongside their religious pursuits. However, their motivation for these economic endeavors was not profit-driven; rather, they viewed their actions as a means to earn rewards and compensation in the hereafter. In essence, they saw their economic activities as acts of compassion and benevolence aimed at supporting their community and helping those in need. Regarding their belief in sacred symbols and their efficacy, participants expressed faith in the sanctity and intercessory power associated with specific times, places, and objects. This belief contributed to feelings of peace, contentment, and satisfaction when they encountered particular objects, visited certain locations, carried symbols, or consumed specific foods and drinks. Such perceptions had established a kind of intersubjective consensus that shaped the attitudes and lived experiences of these women across various individual, social, and economic dimensions of their lives. Overall, it could be observed that these women had organized their actions and beliefs in alignment with religious concepts, values, principles, and rituals. However, influenced by the broader social context and the need to adapt to modern attitudes and values, there were times and places where they had to navigate away from the religious standards emphasized in Quranic classes. In such instances, they might find themselves re-evaluating the religious teachings provided in these classes.

Introduction This study entitled "A Discourse Analysis of Modernization in the Second Pahlavi Era with an Emphasis on the Domestic Automotive Industry (1962–1979)" investigated the complex and contested nature of modernization and industrial development in Iran during the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1941–1979). The article centered on the following question: how were modernization discourses constructed, contested, and transformed through Iran's evolving automotive industry, particularly as a symbolic and practical embodiment of national progress? The domestic automobile sector—exemplified by car assembly projects, such as the Paykan—served as a visible manifestation of modernization policies. By focusing on this industry as a microcosm of broader socio-political and developmental debates, the study explored the competing narratives of "modernity", "progress", and "dependency" that shaped the country's industrial identity in the years leading up to the 1979 Revolution. Materials & Methods This research adopted a discourse analysis approach guided by the theoretical and methodological framework of Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe. Their discourse theory places language, power, and identity at the center of social relations and examines how particular meanings become dominant and hegemonic through political contestation. Texts, historical archives, and industrial documents related to automobile production were interpreted as discursive evidence—that is, as structured representations of ideological and political struggles. Analytical tools derived from Laclau and Mouffe’s concepts were employed to: Identify the primary and central signifiers organizing each discourse, such as "development", "dependency", or "assembly industry" Map chains of equivalence or difference that define the boundaries between modernization narratives and their opponents Trace antagonisms between competing discourse systems—particularly between Pahlavi modernization and revolutionary counter-discourses Assess the social and communicative outcomes that emerge when one discourse temporarily gains hegemonic power This approach did not merely describe industrial policy; rather, it interpreted industrial speech acts—including ministerial statements, propaganda, press releases, and critiques—as sites of meaning construction. The method thus integrated a conceptual framework with empirical data, blending textual analysis and socio-historical interpretation. Discussion of Results & Conclusion The results indicated that modernization under the Second Pahlavi era was discursively framed around the automobile as an emblem of progress and modernity. The Pahlavi discourse attempted to anchor industrial development around key signifiers, such as "automobile production" the "White Revolution", the "Great Civilization", and "middle-class welfare". Together, these concepts formed a "chain of difference", which excluded ideological opponents while consolidating a particular vision of Western-style modernity. However, during the 1970s, rival discourses emerged, primarily influenced by Leftist, Marxist-Islamic, and political Islam perspectives. These counter-discourses produced a "chain of equivalence", linking critiques of the "assembly industry" with notions of "Westoxification" (Gharbzadegi) and "dependency", thereby rejecting perceived Western-imposed models of development. The Paykan automobile crisis gradually became a symbolic battlefield between the vision of modernization through industrial expansion and the revolutionary call for self-sufficiency. Ultimately, the failure of the ruling discourse to articulate "empty signifiers", such as "independence" and "self-reliance" led to the weakening of its hegemony. The revolutionary discourse rearticulated these signifiers, promoting an ideology of a "return to the self", which delegitimized the industrial model as dependent and alien. This ideological transformation played a key role in the collapse of the modernization approach and prepared the ground for the hegemonic rise of the revolutionary discourse in 1979. This research concluded that the domestic automotive industry was not merely an economic enterprise but a discursive field of ideological conflict—where meanings of progress, development, and identity were continuously negotiated. It demonstrated how industrial policy both reflected and reproduced broader socio-political tensions. Through discourse analysis, the study revealed that Iran's modernization project was deeply intertwined with competing cultural and political imaginaries, rather than being driven solely by technical or economic concerns.

Introduction Tolerance is defined as the acceptance and peaceful coexistence with individuals, who differ in values, beliefs, culture, ethnicity, religion, politics, or economics. Social tolerance extends beyond mere endurance; it encompasses respect for differing opinions, mutual understanding, reduction of prejudice, and creation of an environment conducive to constructive interactions. In Iran, a country characterized by significant ethnic, cultural, and economic diversity, fostering tolerance can help mitigate social conflicts, enhance solidarity, and improve overall quality of life. Previous studies have primarily investigated factors, such as religiosity, media consumption, cultural intelligence, and psychological capital. However, the relationship between economic capital and social tolerance—particularly the mediating roles of social capital and cultural capital—has received limited attention. Economic capital encompasses wealth, material assets, income, and financial resources that facilitate access to social opportunities. Economic growth and stability alleviate material concerns, promote civic engagement, and, by strengthening social capital (networks, trust, cooperation) and cultural capital (knowledge, skills, values), create a foundation for enhanced tolerance. The influence of economic capital on tolerance is often indirect; social capital fosters connections and a sense of belonging, while cultural capital enhances understanding of differences. This research, focusing on the citizens of Isfahan Province, sought to explore the following question: How does economic capital influence social tolerance through the mediating effects of social capital and cultural capital? Materials & Methods This research employed a quantitative approach with a descriptive-correlational methodology. Data were collected through two primary methods: library research and field surveys utilizing a standardized questionnaire. The statistical population included citizens aged 18 years and older residing in Isfahan Province. Sampling was conducted by using a multi-stage cluster sampling method. The province was divided into 5 zones with one city selected from each zone: Khur and Biabanak, Kashan, Isfahan, Faridan and Faridunshahr, and Semirom. A sample size of 384 participants (192 men and 192 women) was determined by using Cochran's formula. The research questionnaire was developed based on standard scales and employed a 5-point Likert scale for responses. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS version 22 and AMOS software. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the validity of the measurement model, showing that convergent validity (average variance extracted greater than 0.5), composite reliability (above 0.7), and discriminant validity (the square root of average variance extracted exceeded inter-construct correlations) were met for all variables. Additionally, Cronbach's alpha reliability was found to be acceptable for the main variables. Consequently, the research instrument demonstrated ideal validity and reliability, ensuring adequacy of the measurement model. Discussion of Results & Conclusion The results indicated that economic capital had a positive and significant effect (0.46) on social tolerance. Social capital and cultural capital also played crucial intermediary roles. Economic capital influenced social tolerance indirectly by enhancing social capital (0.47) and cultural capital (0.51). The coefficients for the indirect effects through social capital and cultural capital were 0.23 and 0.24, respectively, underscoring the importance of these mediating variables. The model's fit indices indicated a good overall fit. Increasing economic capital would improve living conditions, reduce inequalities, and create opportunities for social interaction and access to cultural resources, thereby strengthening social tolerance. The findings confirmed that enhancing economic capital promoted tolerance both directly and indirectly (through social and cultural capital). This aligns with economic development theories, such as Lipset's, which posit that economic development is a prerequisite for forming a middle class, alleviating subsistence stress, and fostering acceptance of diversity. Furthermore, this finding is consistent with Bourdieu's theory on cultural capital, as well as the theories of Coleman and Putnam regarding social capital, which suggest that economic capital facilitates access to education, culture, and social networks, thereby enhancing mutual understanding and reducing prejudice. In the context of Isfahan Province, improving economic conditions by diminishing inequalities and strengthening trust and socio-cultural interactions can foster greater cohesion and tolerance. Therefore, to promote social tolerance, policy-making should concentrate on 3 key areas: creating equitable economic opportunities, strengthening local social networks, and narrowing access gaps to cultural resources. Coordinated implementation of these strategies by governmental institutions, non-governmental organizations, and local leaders can facilitate sustainable social development in the province.

IntroductionThe current state of environmental behavior and performance in Iran is concerning. According to the 2024 assessment of environmental sustainability indicators, Iran ranks 113th out of 180 countries. This marks a decline from 133rd in 2023 and 105th in 2016. Over the past two decades, the environmental situation in Iran has deteriorated significantly, exhibiting consistently negative trends. In this study, we utilized meta-analysis to address the contradictions found in the existing research on environmental behavior, particularly in light of the increasing volume of scientific output in this field. Our aim was to synthesize previous findings and identify the key factors influencing environmental behavior. This approach will help prevent redundant research efforts and facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of the factors affecting environmental behavior in Iran. Materials & MethodsThis study employed a meta-analysis approach. The sampling frame included all studies published between 2005 and 2024 on the topic of "environmental behaviors" in reputable scientific journals indexed in the Magiran, Olom Ensani, and SID databases. The inclusion criteria for this analysis required that articles explicitly address environmental behaviors in their titles, fall within the specified time frame, utilize quantitative methods, and provide the necessary statistics for calculating effect sizes, such as correlation coefficients, sample sizes, and the direction of relationships. Initially, 152 articles related to this topic were identified. Following a review based on the relevance of the article content to environmental behaviors and the availability of data for effect size calculations, this number was refined to 54 articles for analysis. Discussion of Results & ConclusionThe findings of this study indicated that environmental behaviors had primarily been examined through the lens of social sciences, particularly sociology. There was a significant emphasis on psychological and social variables, including environmental attitudes, awareness, knowledge, values, norms, and behavioral tendencies. Among these factors, the tendency toward pro-environmental behavior exhibited the largest effect size and was identified as the strongest predictor of environmental behavior in this meta-analysis. The results further highlighted that environmental behavior was a multifaceted phenomenon influenced simultaneously by attitudes, awareness, norms, and various social and cultural contexts. Theoretical analysis of these variables framed within established theories in the field of environmental behavior revealed that the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Value-Belief-Norm Theory had the greatest empirical capacity for explaining these behaviors. Additionally, the New Environmental Paradigm was gradually shaping attitudes and behavioral tendencies within Iranian society.A significant portion of this research focused on examining how the effectiveness of various variables had evolved over time. The findings revealed that the effects sizes of variables, such as environmental attitude, awareness, and knowledge had increased markedly in the last decade (2015-2024) compared to the previous decade (2005-2014). This change suggested a greater influence of cultural, media, and educational initiatives on individuals' environmental attitudes and behaviors. This growth in effectiveness presented an opportunity as the society appeared to be more receptive to and internalizing environmental concepts. Such effectiveness could be further enhanced through targeted policymaking and interventions. While mass media and social networks were increasingly pivotal in fostering environmental awareness, the specific and influential roles of media, influencers, and digital platforms on environmental behaviors in Iran warranted empirical investigation. The findings underscored the importance of cognitive, attitudinal, and cultural components in understanding environmental behavior. They demonstrated that changing environmental behaviors could be achieved not only through punitive policies, but also through educating, awareness-raising, strengthening social capital, and fostering positive collective norms. Therefore, designing educational and cultural interventions grounded in empirical evidence could significantly enhance the environmental behaviors of Iranian citizens.

Introduction The study of the relationship between ethnic and national identities in today's world is of significant interest to scholars, researchers, and policymakers. Ethnocentrism remains a critical social issue in multi-ethnic countries. Among the various ethnic groups in Iran, the Arab community frequently exemplifies the conflict between ethnic and national identities. The sporadic emergence of extremist terrorist groups in Khuzestan, along with the resulting events, underscores the relevance of this issue. The conflict between ethnic and national identities is ultimately a subjective phenomenon that exists "in the minds" of individuals. Therefore, addressing this problem requires an analysis of how individuals perceive these identities, which is essential for understanding the underlying causes of ethnic and national identity conflicts, as well as the reactions of the involved parties. Given the importance of this issue in undermining national unity and security, as well as threatening Iran's territorial integrity and the geopolitical stability of Khuzestan Province, several critical questions arise: What are the causes of the emergence of this phenomenon among the Arabs of Khuzestan? What are the resultant consequences? What strategies have the involved parties adopted in response to this phenomenon? And what factors and conditions are those strategies influenced by? Materials & Methods The present study employed a grounded theory approach, reflecting the qualitative nature of its research questions. In this methodology, concepts and categories were derived from interviews and organized into a paradigmatic model through 3 stages: open, axial, and selective coding. Our aim was to conduct a sociological analysis of the issue at hand. Using the qualitative grounded theory method, this study examined the process of social construction of national identity among the Arabs of Khuzestan. Sampling was conducted through purposive methods with data collection achieved via in-depth interviews until theoretical saturation was reached, thus resulting in a total of 30 interviews. The coding process proceeded as follows: After each interview was transcribed, open coding was performed to identify the main categories. During this phase, the interview texts were segmented into sentences, generating 563 primary raw codes. These primary codes were then refined into 392 secondary codes, which were grouped into related conceptual codes or concepts, resulting in 66 distinct concepts. By clustering several related concepts, we formed 29 subcategories, which were subsequently organized into 14 main categories through further categorization of related subcategories. Discussion of Results & Conclusion The findings indicated that the phenomenon of "identity conflict" had arisen from several causal conditions: 1) racial-ethnic distinctions, 2) historical-cultural conflicts, 3) economic and climatic deprivation, and 4) socio-political exclusion. In response, various actors had engaged in the social construction of national identity. This strategy was shaped by the following background conditions: 1) demographic characteristics, 2) socio-economic foundations, and 3) proximity to other groups. Additionally, intervening conditions included: 1) social pluralism, 2) cultural convergence, and 3) experiences of patriotic disasters. The consequences of these dynamics were twofold: social cohesion (national unity) and political cohesion (national security). In general, the creation of a national identity could occur through two pathways: political and social. The social approach developed by grassroots activists at the micro level proved to be more effective in sustaining national security. Ultimately, the resolution of the identity conflict stemmed from the social construction of national identity by these actors rather than from the political identity constructed by the state. In essence, the grassroots social strategies employed by individuals to foster national identity had demonstrated greater effectiveness than the broader political strategies implemented by the government.

IntroductionThroughout history, humanity has consistently sought to fulfill its desires and meet its needs. The sensation of relative deprivation arises when individuals feel they are denied what they rightfully deserve. This feeling reflects a disconnection between value expectations—such as aspirations and ideal living conditions—and value capabilities, which encompass the available opportunities and resources. Numerous economic, social, political, and cultural factors contribute to this sense of deprivation, including unemployment, inflation, corruption, poverty, consumerism, social media influences, and economic instability. In metropolitan areas like Tehran undergoing rapid social, economic, and cultural transformations, the feeling of relative deprivation becomes increasingly intricate. Social disparities, economic dissatisfaction, and widespread protests in recent decades highlight the prevalence of this sentiment among citizens. These unrests, which are driven by issues, such as economic challenges, lack of government accountability, restrictions on civil liberties, and declining public trust, often begin in Tehran before spreading to other regions. These factors have undermined the middle class, exacerbated relative poverty, and fostered a sense of hopelessness about the future. Consequently, the central question of this research was: What factors contribute to the emergence or mitigation of feelings of relative deprivation among residents of Tehran at the political (perceptions of government effectiveness and civil liberties), social (satisfaction of needs and social standing), and economic (labor relations and economic pressures) levels? Materials & MethodsThis research employed a descriptive-analytical approach, aimed at applied outcomes, and utilized a survey technique. The statistical population comprised citizens aged 18 to 70 years residing in the 22 districts of Tehran. To determine the sample size, the regression analysis method of Sample Power software was employed, resulting in a final sample of 255 participants. Sampling was conducted using a multistage cluster method. The 22 districts were categorized into 5 regions (north, south, central, east, and west) with each region further divided into neighborhoods and streets. Questionnaires were then distributed within selected residential blocks. The primary research instrument was a questionnaire that included standardized scales to measure variables, such as feelings of relative deprivation, perceptions of government inefficiency, economic structural pressures, unmet needs, diminishing civil liberties, low social status, and weak labor relations. The validity of the questionnaire was evaluated through face and content validity, while reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, which indicated satisfactory reliability for the scales. Data analysis was performed using SPSS and AMOS software. Discussion of Results & ConclusionThe descriptive findings of this study indicated that the average feeling of relative deprivation among citizens of Tehran was notably high with 67.2 percent experiencing it at an elevated level. The analytical results revealed that as levels of unmet social needs and structural pressures increased, alongside perceptions of government inefficiency, the feeling of relative deprivation also intensified. Conversely, declines in social status, a weak structure of labor relations, and reduced political and civil freedoms contributed to heightened feelings of deprivation. Structural analysis of the research model demonstrated that the economic structural pressures index with a total effect of 0.904 and the variable of unmet social needs with a coefficient of 0.867 exerted the most significant direct and indirect influences on the relative deprivation experienced by Tehrani citizens. These findings highlighted that feelings of relative deprivation were prevalent among the population and stemmed from multiple factors. Key contributors included economic structural pressures (such as poverty, unemployment, and inflation), unmet social needs (encompassing biological, security, social, and self-actualization needs), and perceptions of government inefficiency. To mitigate feelings of relative deprivation, it is essential to enhance economic conditions, fulfill citizens' basic needs, and bolster trust in government through improved efficiency and accountability. Additionally, strengthening civil liberties, reforming the structure of labor relations, and elevating social status will also prove beneficial. Overall, these findings underscore the necessity of addressing various aspects of citizens' lives and implementing comprehensive policies aimed at reducing social disparities and enhancing public satisfaction.

IntroductionThe Tehran Stock Exchange (TSE), once celebrated as a hallmark of Iran's economic modernization and a crucial capital market, has recently become emblematic of growing distrust and perceived systemic corruption. While state media previously hailed the TSE as the "showcase of the Iranian economy", many stakeholders now refer to it as a "broken showcase", highlighting its issues with opacity, manipulation, and insider control. This study sought to fill a significant gap in the sociological understanding of financial corruption by examining how key market participants perceived and interpreted corruption within the Iranian stock market. The primary objective was to uncover the social and institutional mechanisms that contributed to the prevalent perception of corruption in the TSE. Materials & MethodsThis study employed a qualitative methodology, utilizing thematic analysis to explore how market participants understood and articulated corruption. Data were collected through 28 in-depth semi-structured interviews with a purposive and snowball sample of investors, analysts, brokers, and financial experts, all of whom possessed at least 5 years of experience in the TSE. Data analysis was conducted using MAXQDA software following Braun and Clarke’s 6-step thematic analysis framework. To enhance the validity of the findings, the study incorporated triangulation, member checking, memo writing, and peer debriefing.The theoretical framework was grounded in 4 key perspectives:North’s Institutional Theory (1990): Emphasizing the role of formal and informal institutions in facilitating or hindering corruptionBecker’s Rational Choice Theory (1968): Explaining corrupt behavior as the result of a cost-benefit analysisParsons’ Social Systems Theory (1951): Linking corruption to a breakdown in normative integration and role performancePutnam’s Social Capital Theory (1993): Connecting declining trust to the rise in perceived corruption Discussion of Results & ConclusionThree major themes emerged from the data:a) Anomic Market ConditionsParticipants reported experiences of widespread rule-breaking, price manipulation, media misrepresentation, and insider trading. Many described the TSE as a "rigged game" or "casino" where outcomes were dictated not by skill or analysis, but by proximity to power and access to privileged information. This erosion of equal opportunity in information access had led to significant frustration among retail investors. b) Institutional CorruptionRespondents highlighted the failure of regulatory bodies, such as the Securities and Exchange Organization (SEO), to prevent or address corruption. Structural weaknesses, lack of transparency, and conflicts of interest were identified as systemic issues. Supervisory institutions were often perceived not as neutral overseers, but as entities captured by political or economic elites.c) Mafia-Style CorruptionMany participants characterized corruption as organized and hierarchical rather than incidental. This included allegations of collusion among large shareholders, brokers, and regulators with outcomes often pre-arranged behind the scenes. Terms like “mafiosi”, “corrupt networks”, and “engineered losses” were frequently mentioned.These perceptions reflected a broader erosion of social and institutional trust. For many investors, especially those, who had suffered significant losses during the 2020 market crash, the stock exchange had ceased to be a viable or safe investment option. Instead, it was seen as a domain that perpetuated inequality and injustice.This study concluded that perceived corruption in the TSE could not be reduced to isolated incidents; it was deeply embedded in a broader institutional and cultural context. Rebuilding trust in the Iranian capital market required systemic reforms, including independence of oversight bodies, enhancement of transparency mechanisms, enforcement of accountability, and cultivation of ethical norms. Without addressing these foundational issues, the TSE will continue to exist as a space of exclusion and resentment rather than a catalyst for national economic development.

Introduction The phenomenon of loneliness has become a significant social and psychological concern in urban areas, largely due to the complexities of urban life and a decline in social interactions. Urban loneliness, as both a psychological and social issue, manifests as a malaise stemming from the disconnection between individuals and their environments. Therefore, urban planning must prioritize the creation of spaces that mitigate feelings of loneliness and their detrimental effects on individual health. This study aimed to perform a network analysis and examine research trends related to urban loneliness using the VOSviewer tool. Materials & Methods This research was philosophically grounded in pragmatism and situated within the interpretive paradigm. It was classified as applied research based on its objectives. Methodologically, a descriptive and analytical qualitative approach was employed. A scientometric framework was utilized, incorporating bibliometric and visualization techniques, such as co-word analysis, co-authorship analysis, co-citation analysis, and social network analysis. Library research methods were implemented to collect data for the literature review and construct the research database. The initial statistical population comprised 8,362 articles related to loneliness, which was obtained through an unrestricted search. To refine the database and ensure relevance to the research scope, various extraction methods based on the research keywords were tested with the results of each method evaluated. This iterative process continued until an optimal search algorithm tailored to the research objectives was developed. Ultimately, 310 articles directly relevant to the topic were selected for co-occurrence analysis. Data analysis employed bibliometric and scientometric methods, particularly co-word analysis, using the VOSviewer software environment. The analysis included models, such as Citation Analysis, Co-Citation Analysis, Co-Authorship Analysis, Keyword Analysis, and Publication Analysis. Discussion of Results & Conclusion Research on loneliness has seen gradual growth from the 1950s to the late 1990s, primarily concentrating on clinical psychology and sociology, with a focus on identifying factors that influence the experience of loneliness. Since the 2000s, the pace of research has accelerated, branching into various fields, including social psychology and neuroscience. The 2010s marked a period of exponential growth with studies examining loneliness across different age groups and specific life circumstances. Following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, research on loneliness reached its peak, becoming a central focus of scientific inquiry. Co-word analysis of keywords identified core terms, such as "loneliness", "social isolation", "mental health", "depression", "social support", "older adults", and "COVID-19", which exhibited the highest frequencies. Recent studies have introduced concepts like "coronavirus", "pandemics", "gender", "social media", and "welfare status" into the discourse on loneliness. Since 2020, "city" and "rural" have also emerged as significant terms in this field. Co-citation analysis revealed that the "UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3)" published in 1996 by Russell was the most highly cited reference in the domain of "loneliness and the city". An analysis of the countries contributing to loneliness research showed that China and the United States ranked first and second, respectively, while Iran held the 13th position with 7 publications. In terms of citations, the United States led with 2,134 citations followed by the United Kingdom and China. Network analysis of co-citation indicated that research in the field of loneliness had been published across 213 journals with the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health having the most significant impact. Examining the evolution of research revealed that, in recent decades, the concept of loneliness within urban contexts had been linked to demographic, social, and psychological factors, as well as individual characteristics and the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, significant gaps remained in the existing literature, particularly regarding the role of urban environments as exacerbating or causative factors of loneliness. While numerous studies had addressed social isolation, few had specifically focused on environmental loneliness or urban loneliness, which arose from the interaction between individuals and urban spaces. Given the growing importance of loneliness as a complex social issue in the 21th century, there was an urgent need for comprehensive and multifaceted research exploring the relationship between cities and loneliness. The findings underscored that identifying research gaps in the field of "loneliness and urban studies" could serve as a valuable resource for scholars. This identification could facilitate the formation of international collaborative networks, highlight key reference sources and highly cited articles, and uncover emerging keywords in this area. Importantly, the results of this study may pave the way for future research directions and contribute to the expansion of studies within this scientific field.

Introduction Rural development is a fundamental pillar of sustainable development in Iran, playing a vital role in poverty alleviation, enhancing food security, and improving rural livelihoods. Women, who represent a significant portion of the agricultural workforce, engage in approximately 11.4% of agricultural activities (Eco Iran, 2023). However, both global and national evidence reveal persistent gender inequalities in access to resources, decision-making opportunities, and institutional support systems, which collectively hinder women’s effective participation in rural development. These inequalities stem from structural, cultural, and institutional barriers that undermine social inclusion and gender justice—essential elements of sustainable development. Although Iran’s rural development policies, particularly those outlined in the national Five-Year Development Plans (2006–2024), have increasingly acknowledged gender-related issues, a substantial gap remains between policy intentions and actual outcomes. This disparity is largely due to the predominance of the Women in Development (WID) approach, which integrates women into existing frameworks without addressing the underlying power structures. This study critically examined Iran’s rural development policies through the lens of social inclusion and gender justice, employing a mixed-methods approach to identify gaps, barriers, and pathways toward more inclusive and equitable rural development. Materials & Methods This research employed a convergent mixed-methods design, integrating both quantitative and qualitative analyses to provide a comprehensive understanding of gender dynamics and inclusion in Iran’s rural development policies. Quantitative data were gathered from official national statistics (2006–2024) published by the Statistical Center of Iran and the Ministry of Agriculture Jihad, focusing on gender-disaggregated indicators, such as economic participation rates, access to agricultural credit, and education levels. Qualitative data were obtained through content analysis of policy documents, including the Fourth to Seventh National Development Plans, the Comprehensive Plan for Women and Family Affairs (2005), the General Family Policy Document (2016), and the Gender Justice Indicators Framework (2017). Additionally, 45 semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 3 stakeholder groups: 20 rural women, 15 experts and researchers, and 10 policy or executive managers across 5 provinces (Golestan, Fars, Isfahan, Tehran, and Lorestan) selected to represent a diverse geographic and developmental spectrum of Iran. Purposeful sampling with maximum variation ensured a broad range of perspectives. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis (following Braun & Clarke, 2006) and qualitative content analysis, resulting in 412 initial codes, 32 subcategories, and 7 main categories (e.g., gender inequality in resource access, institutional exclusion, cultural barriers, policy challenges, and data deficiencies). Quantitative data were utilized to trace trends in gender justice indicators. Data triangulation across interviews, documents, and statistics enhanced the validity of the findings. Ethical considerations included obtaining informed consent, ensuring anonymity, and avoiding sensitive questions to prevent harm to participants. Inter-coder reliability analysis yielded a Cohen’s kappa of 0.87, indicating a strong level of agreement. Discussion of Results & Conclusion The findings revealed significant gender inequalities and institutional exclusion of rural women within Iran’s rural development framework, undermining both social inclusion and gender justice. Gender Inequality in Access to Resources: Rural women faced substantial barriers in accessing financial, productive (land and water), and knowledge resources due to institutional limitations, such as the lack of formal collateral and legal dependence on men. For example, a woman from Golestan was denied an agricultural loan because her farmland was legally registered in her husband’s name. In 2020, only 14% of agricultural extension agents were women, limiting access to gender-sensitive training. These findings align with the Gender and Development (GAD) framework, which emphasizes addressing structural inequalities—contrary to the Women in Development (WID) approach prevalent in Iran, which views women as passive recipients. Comparative evidence from India’s self-help women’s groups demonstrates how microfinance can enhance empowerment though cultural and institutional differences may pose challenges to its sustainability in Iran. Institutional and Structural Exclusion: The institutional neglect of women’s unpaid domestic and informal agricultural work excluded them from social protection systems, such as insurance. Discriminatory inheritance and land ownership laws further restricted access to essential assets, while women’s minimal representation in decision-making bodies (3.2% in rural councils as of 2017) marginalized their voices. These forms of exclusion resonated with the framework of social exclusion (Koutsouris et al., 2020) and underscored the need for gender-transformative approaches to shift existing power dynamics. Cultural and Social Barriers: Prevailing gender norms and stereotypes confined women to low-income activities, such as food processing and poultry raising, while men dominated higher-value sectors with 85% male participation in marketing. Women worked an average of 16 hours per day compared to 10 hours for men, owing to their dual responsibilities in domestic and agricultural tasks. These findings are consistent with feminist theories (Mohanty, 2003). Global experiences, such as gender training initiatives in Ethiopia, demonstrate the potential for changing norms through engagement with local leaders; however, localized strategies will be essential to overcome resistance in Iran. Policy Challenges: Iran’s rural development policies continued to be largely influenced by the Women in Development (WID) approach, which lacked gender sensitivity, coherence, and coordination. Approximately 82% of experts identified a significant gap between policy design and implementation. The neglect of women’s indigenous knowledge had further alienated policies from local realities. Comparisons with global frameworks, such as Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG 5) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), highlighted both legal and practical shortcomings. Weakness of Gender Data and Evidence:The absence of gender-disaggregated data—particularly concerning land ownership and market participation—obscured women’s contributions to the rural economy. Existing studies were often non-participatory and methodologically constrained. Global initiatives, such as those by CGIAR (2020), emphasized the importance of gender data; however, high costs and institutional barriers presented challenges for effective implementation in Iran. This study illustrated how structural inequalities, institutional exclusion, cultural norms, and policy gaps collectively hindered rural women’s participation and sustainable rural development in Iran. It advocated for the adoption of gender-transformative policy approaches, improvement of gender-disaggregated data systems, and enhancement of women’s participation in decision-making processes. The study’s limitations included its provincial focus and restricted access to certain policy documents, indicating the need for broader national and comparative analyses. Theoretically, this research contributes to the literature by emphasizing gender-transformative frameworks, while practically, it offers a policy-oriented framework for inclusive rural development. Future studies should incorporate comparative, longitudinal, and participatory research to capture the lived experiences of rural women and support evidence-based, gender-sensitive policy design.

IntroductionBeing defined as the "abuse of public office and position for personal gain", corruption is a complex and multifaceted issue that affects both developed and developing countries alike. No region is immune to this pervasive phenomenon. While virtually every nation grapples with various forms of corruption to differing degrees, it poses particularly significant challenges for developing countries. This social issue undermines societal values and norms, eroding trust in the institutions designed to govern human affairs. Despite the wealth of macro-level studies on corruption, there remains a notable lack of focus on identifying the underlying and unique causal factors, particularly through a qualitative, case-oriented lens. To address this gap, this study employed a case-oriented approach to explore the diverse causal pathways leading to corruption in developing nations as supported by empirical examples specific to each context. The theoretical framework of this research integrated macro-level conditions that influenced corruption control. Utilizing the Parsonsian model, this study viewed society as a system comprised of 4 fundamental subsystems: economy, politics, society, and culture. These subsystems interacted within a network that shaped the overall order of society and, consequently, the effectiveness of corruption control, which was influenced by the quality and frequency of these interactions. Furthermore, these subsystems existed within a suprasystemic environment that exerted external influences, imparting unique characteristics related to the emergence or mitigation of corruption. Materials & MethodsThis study employed a comparative-qualitative method alongside a fuzzy approach. The fuzzy approach allowed for the examination of necessary and sufficient conditions through subset testing and calculation of compatibility and coverage indices. According to the subset principle, a cause was deemed necessary if the values associated with the effect (Y) form a subset of the cause (X). Conversely, it was considered a sufficient cause when the set of the cause (X) was a subset of the effect (Y). To achieve this, each causal and consequent condition in this study was treated as a linguistic variable and transformed into fuzzy scores through a mapping or membership rule. Membership functions were calibrated using domain knowledge and expert opinions. This research focused on 136 developing countries, utilizing valid data spanning the period from 2005 to 2021. Data collection was based on the information from the Institute for the Quality of Governance (2022) at the University of Gothenburg and supplemented by the data from 4 additional statistical sources: the Bertelsmann Stiftung Change Index, Transparency International, Social Progress, and Globalization Institute (KOF). Discussion of Results & ConclusionThe analysis of necessary and sufficient conditions for individual causal factors indicated that inequality (specifically, a lack of equal opportunity), economic hardship, financial instability, violations of private property rights, and insufficient integration into the global system were likely sufficient conditions for corruption. Conversely, the absence of judicial independence, political stability, a robust party system, and social capital alone did not constitute a necessary or sufficient condition for corruption to occur. In examining conjunctive and compound causality, the most significant empirical pathway identified revealed that corruption arose in contexts marked by political tension and inequality, alongside the absence of judicial independence, welfare, social capital, a functioning party system, protection of private property, and global integration. Notably, the common thread among these causal pathways suggested that the lack of an independent judicial system and a strong party system combined with the presence of social capital created an environment conducive to corruption. Furthermore, social capital in the contexts characterized by systemic inefficiencies—such as a non-independent judiciary and ongoing political tensions—acted as a breeding ground for corruption. To simplify the various equations and combinations, the commonality across all pathways was identified. This analysis revealed that corruption tended to occur in countries lacking an independent judiciary or experiencing political conflict and tension; either of these conditions alone was sufficient for corruption to manifest. In contrast, the complementary findings for a set of clean and transparent countries suggested that these societies had largely achieved their success through three distinct pathways. Cultural and regional differences had influenced the development of these causal paths. For instance, in many Eastern European countries, a combination of reduced political tension, financial stability, equal opportunity, prosperity, social capital, a strong party system, protection of private property, and integration into the global system had contributed to their success in combating corruption. In certain Latin American countries, a combination of judicial independence, financial stability, equal opportunity, prosperity, social capital, a strong party system, protection of private property, and integration into the global system had contributed to greater transparency. Arab countries presented unique cases; despite facing significant challenges in political and social variables, they had managed to achieve some success in controlling corruption due to economic development and integration into the global system. The key features of this causal pathway included financial stability, prosperity, protection of private property, and global integration. Based on the findings, 3 categories of conditions related to corruption could be identified: conditions that fostered corruption, conditions that exacerbated it, and conditions that facilitated its control. Consequently, policies aimed at addressing corruption had to focus on these three aspects. When it comes to modifying the conditions that lead to corruption, promoting economic equality and financial stability is crucial. Regarding aggravating factors, lessons learned from various countries suggest that policies should prioritize the enhancement of a strong party system and greater integration into the global economy. However, it is essential to emphasize that combating corruption effectively requires an independent judicial system equipped with fair and efficient judicial processes. The authors of this article hope that the introduction of these causal pathways will be considered by policymakers and macro-level decision-makers in their efforts to address this disruptive social phenomenon.

IntroductionChild marriage is a widespread phenomenon globally though its prevalence varies significantly across different regions. According to UNICEF (2020), approximately 12 million girls are married before the age of 18 each year worldwide, with 37% of these girls residing in Africa. In Iran, statistics indicate that around 890,000 girls under 18 years were married between 2006 and mid-2015. Recent studies (Bagi, 2025; Torabi & Bagi, 2024) show an increase in the number of female child marriages in recent years. Iran is a multi-ethnic and multicultural society and this diversity significantly influences both the prevalence and patterns of child marriage, resulting in notable regional disparities. Therefore, examining the spread of this issue across different regions is of paramount importance (Salahshour & Habibpour, 2021: 34). Most studies conducted in Iran have primarily focused on the causes or consequences of child marriage at the individual level or have utilized small-scale case studies using qualitative methods. However, few studies have addressed the ethnic and cultural differences across regions. Consequently, this study aimed to investigate and compare the prevalence and determinants of child marriage in Iranian counties across 3 national censuses—2006, 2011, and 2016. Materials & MethodsThis study employed a quantitative research approach, utilizing secondary data analysis to examine census data collected by the Statistical Center of Iran. The statistical population encompassed all counties in Iran, which were analyzed across 3 time points. In 2006, Iran had 336 counties, which increased to 397 in 2011 and reached 429 by 2016. The unit of analysis for this research was county. Discussion of Results & ConclusionIn 2006, the rate of child marriage among girls across the 336 counties of Iran ranged from 0% to 15.28%. The counties of Rashtkhar and Khalilabad in Razavi Khorasan Province, along with Farooj in North Khorasan Province, exhibited the highest prevalence rates at 15.28%, 15.16%, and 14.34%, respectively. Notably, Abu-Musa County in Hormozgan Province was the only county with no recorded cases of girls marrying before the age of 18. Following Abu-Musa, Paveh in Kermanshah Province and Abadeh in Fars Province reported the lowest rates at 0.472% and 0.539%, respectively.By 2011, the prevalence of child marriage among girls had increased, ranging from 0% to 29.05%. Khalilabad, Sarein, and Firouzeh in Razavi Khorasan and Ardabil provinces recorded the highest rates at 29.05%, 27.25%, and 25.14%, respectively. Notably, the number of counties reporting zero percent child marriage rose to 10 in 2011 compared to just one in 2006.In 2016, over 75% of Iranian counties reported child marriage rates below 10%. That year, the rates ranged from 0% to 35.11%, with Ijrud County in Zanjan Province having the highest rate at 35.11%. This was followed by Rashtkhar, Firouzeh, and Zaveh counties in Razavi Khorasan Province, which had rates of 30.88%, 30.27%, and 29.48%, respectively. Additionally, 22 counties reported zero cases of girls marrying under 18.The findings illustrated a geographical distribution of child marriage across Iranian counties, highlighting the concentration of high rates in specific areas, which underscored the influence of ethnicity. Certain ethnic groups, particularly in Turkish-speaking regions (northwest), Baloch areas (southeast), and Persian-speaking populations in Razavi Khorasan (northeast), consistently experienced higher rates throughout the study period.Analysis of the relationships between variables revealed that urbanization, internet penetration, and levels of development were significantly and negatively correlated with child marriage. As these factors increased in a county, the prevalence of female child marriage tended to decrease.According to the findings, raising public awareness through improved access to mass media played a crucial role in reducing child marriage. As families became more informed about the negative consequences of child marriage and moved away from traditional mindsets, they were more likely to prevent early marriages. Additional deterrents included urbanization and higher levels of development. When sufficient resources and opportunities were available for women to pursue their aspirations, child marriage became less prevalent. Consequently, regions that offered such conditions tended to experience lower rates of child marriage.Ultimately, most counties with high child marriage rates were less developed and had limited access to mass media. Enhancing conditions in these areas through greater access to educational and awareness-raising media coupled with broader development initiatives could significantly reduce child marriage. However, despite the impact of development, other factors—such as religion and ethnicity—should not be overlooked as they also play a critical role in shaping regional behavioral differences.

Introduction Elections represent a collective will and serve as a vital link between participation and legitimacy. In complex societies where millions of citizens cannot engage directly in governance, the system of indirect or proxy representation has emerged as a suitable form of participation. Elections are the democratic mechanism for selecting representative institutions and form the foundation of legitimacy within democratic structures. In modern democracies, electoral participation is the most conventional and widespread form of political engagement among citizens, serving as one of the main pillars of democracy and circulation of power among its contenders and aspirants. In Iran, the origins of elections trace back to the Constitutional Revolution. While there have been periods when elections have become more theatrical than substantive, the underlying spirit of electoral participation has endured, reminding society that elections are a cornerstone of citizens' rights to shape their own destinies. A prominent example of this self-determination is the citizens' participation in electing their representatives to the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Parliament), an event that occurs every four years. Since the onset of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, twelve parliamentary elections have taken place. This research asserted that the level of participation in the twelfth parliamentary election in Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province had been notably problematic when compared to other provinces in the country. Materials & Methods This research employed a qualitative approach, utilizing grounded theory to analyze the conducted interviews. The study focused on Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province, specifically examining the perspectives of the region's scientific and political elites. Following the researcher's engagement in the field, in-depth interviews were conducted with selected individuals until theoretical saturation was achieved. Theoretical saturation was reached after conducting 20 interviews. Two sampling methods—purposive sampling and theoretical sampling—were employed to select participants and concepts. The coding framework for this article was based on the coding processes outlined by Strauss and Corbin. This approach incorporated 3 types of coding: open, axial, and selective (focused). It also utilized situational and consequential matrices, aimed to identify a core category, and included specific coding for the causes, conditions, and contexts influencing the researcher's categories. A total of 20 individuals from Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Fars, and Tehran provinces were selected and interviewed. These participants held degrees in various fields, including History, Political Science, Sociology, Philosophy, Literature, and Economics. Discussion of Results & Conclusion Elections do not inherently cause tribalism and clan-based politics; rather, they serve as a platform for the activation and manifestation of tribal divisions. This phenomenon is not random; individuals weigh the costs and benefits throughout the process. In this context, a narrow perspective and the absence of a macro-level viewpoint among the elite hinder their ability to act in the collective interest. While individuals may present themselves as democratic and aligned with party frameworks, their underlying chauvinistic attitudes often prevent them from truly functioning as party members. Consequently, they tend to draw a clear distinction between national and local concerns, striving to adopt a national mindset at the macro level while approaching elections with varying perspectives at the micro and local levels. The power dynamics within tribal organizations consistently support and reinforce electoral participation. While lower classes may indirectly gain benefits from elections, it is the upper classes that enjoy more immediate advantages. Given the historical role of these elites in mobilizing the populace, they can still leverage their long-standing traditional influence to engage various groups in parliamentary elections, which often have local implications. In urban settings, where relationships are more regulated, systematic, and impersonal, it can be challenging to motivate individuals to participate after experiencing one or more cycles of disappointment with voting. However, as one moves from urban areas into tribal and clan regions, these traditional and non-critical functions become more pronounced. Individuals often overlook past negative experiences or lack sufficient awareness and knowledge, leading to dynamic participation in elections driven by regional considerations and necessities.

Introduction In Iranian culture and religion, children have always held a prestigious status viewed as divine blessings and essential social assets. In ancient Iran, having more children symbolized greater power, economic strength, and military capability. The advent of Islam further amplified the religious emphasis on family and childbearing, solidifying their significance. However, over the past 50 years, Iran has undergone profound changes in family structure and childbearing patterns. The transition from extended to nuclear families, declining mortality rates, and a total fertility rate that has plummeted to 1.6 have introduced new demographic challenges. Population policies have varied widely, oscillating from stringent population control measures in previous decades to recent initiatives aimed at boosting birth rates, reflecting the complexity of the issue. The decline in childbearing in Iran is influenced not only by policy, but also by cultural and social factors, such as delayed marriage, economic hardships, and the impact of global culture. These influences have contributed to trends like single-child families and postponed childbearing, with projections indicating a future dominated by nuclear families without children. Despite this overarching trend, some families maintain a desire for multiple children and uphold alternative values and attitudes. These families shaped by diverse life experiences exhibit a stronger motivation to have more children. The research gap concerning the lives and experiences of young, multi-child families has prompted scholars to delve deeper into this topic, particularly in cities like Tabas. Materials & Methods This qualitative study aimed to investigate the reasons why certain families in Tabas choose to have more children. With a population of approximately 39,000, Tabas exemplifies a unique blend of tradition and modernity, where religious and cultural values continue to shape family life. The study focused on women with 4 or more children. They were selected through purposive, convenience, and snowball sampling methods. Data collection was conducted using semi-structured interviews with primary questions addressing factors that enhanced the desire for larger families, experiences associated with raising multiple children, and the contrasts between families with many children and those with fewer. The interview data were analyzed through thematic analysis, a method that involved categorizing, identifying patterns, and interpreting the findings. This analysis was guided by various thematic analysis models and was conducted in 3 stages, encompassing 6 steps and 20 specific actions to reveal the underlying patterns in the experiences of these families. Discussion of Results & Conclusion This research investigated the motivations and reasons behind multi-child families in Tabas amid a societal trend of declining fertility. The focus was on families with 4 or more children, who still desired to expand their families. The key findings were organized into 5 main themes: "Family Well-being", "Traditional Habit", "Self-Sufficient Motherhood", "Child as Investment", and "Spiritual Beliefs". The results indicated that, despite facing challenges, multi-child families experienced high levels of "Family Well-being" characterized by positive and intimate interactions that enhanced their qualities of life. The theme of "Traditional Habit" encompassed specific behavioral patterns and systems that facilitated effective problem-solving and management of family affairs. The central role of mothers in "Self-Sufficient Motherhood" played a significant part in nurturing maternal instincts and enhancing caregiving skills, which positively impacted the health and development of children. The theme of "Child as Investment" reflected the belief that children were invaluable assets and sources of support throughout life. Lastly, "Spiritual Beliefs", which included religious convictions and a sense of social responsibility to increase the population, served as strong motivational factors for these families. These findings align with previous research on spiritual well-being, marital satisfaction, resilience, and religious tendencies, highlighting the crucial role of spiritual and social factors in family planning decisions. Furthermore, the study resonated with theories of fertility economics and social capital, viewing children as both economic and social assets that strengthened family cohesion and solidarity. Conversely, the findings challenged the modernization perspective on family dynamics as multi-child families often made decisions based on relational networks and collective beliefs rather than individual desires. These families embraced concepts, such as the blessings and grace of children, which contrasted with the secular dimensions of modernization. Given the economic and cultural challenges faced by multi-child families, it is recommended that policymakers and government agencies provide essential support in various areas, particularly housing and economic assistance. Additionally, addressing cultural needs and offering appropriate facilities can improve living conditions and enhance the welfare of these families. Such support not only benefits multi-child families, but also strengthens the social and cultural foundations of society.

IntroductionThe increasing instability of family structures is a significant societal concern that warrants thorough investigation. One aspect worth exploring is how individuals navigated their singlehood in the past and how these experiences influence marriage and cohabitation. This research aimed to examine the relationships among various factors, including friendship experiences, emotional attachment, desire for diversity, mistrust, and attitude toward divorce among married women. Materials & MethodsThis research utilized a cross-sectional survey design with a descriptive-correlational approach. The statistical population consisted of married women aged 20 to 39 years residing in the 3rd, 13th, and 16th districts of Tehran. The sample size was determined to be 383 participants using Cochran's formula. A combination of multi-stage and simple random sampling methods was employed. In this study, the independent variables included friendship experience, emotional attachment, distrust, desire for diversity, age, employment status, and education level. The dependent variable was attitude toward divorce. The Pearson correlation coefficient was applied to examine the bivariate relationships between the dependent variable (a pseudo-interval measure of attitude toward divorce) and the independent variables (which were on interval and pseudo-interval scales and included emotional attachment, distrust, desire for diversity, age, and education). To assess the bivariate relationships between the dependent variable and the nominal variables of employment status and friendship experience (which were on a two-choice scale), a T-test for independent samples was conducted. Additionally, multivariate linear regression analysis was used to explore the relationships between the dependent variable and independent variables.Discussion of Results & ConclusionThe results indicated that friendship experience, emotional attachment, desire for diversity, distrust, and employment status significantly influenced positive attitude toward divorce. Notably, a significant negative relationship was found between emotional attachment and attitude toward divorce, suggesting that as emotional attachment decreased, attitude toward divorce among married women became more positive. Additionally, the research revealed that higher levels of distrust towards spouses correlated with more favorable attitude toward divorce. Another significant finding was the relationship between an increased desire for diversity and positive attitude toward divorce among women. Overall, issues related to sexuality and intimacy played a crucial role in dissatisfaction between couples and contributed to instability in their relationships, with sexual diversity being a key factor. Moreover, the study found a significant difference in average attitude toward divorce between individuals who had friendship experiences with the opposite sex and those who did not. Specifically, those with such friendships exhibited higher average scores for attitude toward divorce. To further explore this finding, the research examined the impact of "friendship experience" on emotional attachment, distrust, and desire for diversity. The analysis revealed that friendship experience significantly affected emotional attachment, distrust, and desire for diversity. Consequently, it could be concluded that individuals with friendship experiences tended to have lower emotional attachment, greater distrust, and a higher desire for diversity. Therefore, having friendship experience significantly influenced positive attitude toward divorce, both directly and indirectly, through its effects on the other three variables. Regarding contextual factors, no statistically significant relationship was observed between age or education and attitude toward divorce. However, a notable difference was found between the average attitude of employed and unemployed individuals; specifically, employed women exhibited a more positive attitude toward divorce compared to their unemployed counterparts. While women's employment could contribute to family stability and economic growth, it could also pose risks to the family foundation if not approached with care. It is crucial to provide essential training for young couples during marriage preparation to help men learn effective ways to attract and support their wives. Given the increasing employment and financial independence of many women today, meeting their economic needs alone is no longer sufficient to ensure their commitment to family life. Additionally, women should appreciate the emotional aspects of relationships. Human needs extend beyond mere economic support; the need for intimacy and affection becomes increasingly vital over time. This study found that women with a friendship experience, lower emotional attachment, higher distrust, and a desire for diversity combined with employment status tended to have the most positive attitude toward divorce. This finding enhances our understanding of the long-term consequences of friendships and relationships prior to marriage. It offers valuable insights for cultural and educational institutions aimed at raising awareness among adolescents and young people, particularly in modifying their interaction patterns with the opposite sex. Many young girls in open relationships tend to focus on short-term benefits (such as fulfilling immediate needs) and may be unaware of the potential long-term consequences due to their lack of experience. An effective approach can involve sharing the lived experiences of individuals, who have faced negative long-term outcomes from open relationships. Additionally, this study highlighted the deeper dimensions of incompatibility and divorce, underscoring the need for accessible counseling services for couples whose marriages may be at risk due to previous unfavorable experiences. To mitigate the risk of divorce, couples considering marriage should first develop a greater awareness of how each other's past experiences may impact their future together, enabling them to make informed decisions about selecting a life partner. If they are committed to marriage, proactive measures should be implemented to address and reduce these negative effects, thereby decreasing the likelihood of divorce in the future.

Introduction This study explored the concept of girlhood as a socially constructed and dynamic experience shaped by the interplay of cultural, socioeconomic, and racial factors rather than by biological determinism. Within the framework of gender studies, girlhood is understood as a fluid and multifaceted identity influenced by both individual agency and sociocultural context. Focusing on adolescent girls in Yazd, Iran, this research investigated how young women conceptualize, perform, and renegotiate their identities in the midst of evolving traditional norms and modern influences. In recent years, Yazd has undergone significant sociocultural transformations—including urbanization, increased tourism, and influx of global youth culture—that have complicated identity formation for adolescent girls. Drawing on qualitative data, this study revealed that girlhood is a contested space where conventional gender roles are both internalized and challenged. Materials & Methods This qualitative research adopted a constructivist grounded theory approach (Charmaz, 2006) and was conducted between 2023 and 2024. Data collection included 25 semi-structured interviews with adolescent girls aged 16 to 22 years and supplemented by a focus group with eight 16-year-old participants. Purposive and theoretical sampling methods were employed to ensure diverse representation of socioeconomic backgrounds from various neighborhoods in Yazd. Data analysis followed a 3-phase coding process: initial, axial, and theoretical coding. To uphold research rigor and trustworthiness, ethical considerations—such as informed consent, confidentiality, and data security—were meticulously adhered to. Additionally, credibility was bolstered through member checking, peer debriefing, and methodological triangulation. Discussion of Results & Conclusion The analysis resulted in the identification of 6 major categories that illuminated the complexities of girlhood in the contemporary context of Yazd: Fluid Subjectivity: Girlhood was experienced as a dynamic and embodied identity shaped by emotional and physical transformations. Participants redefined femininity through heightened body awareness, self-expression, and gender fluidity, challenging rigid binary norms. Traditional Discourses and Reproduction of Gender Norms: Familial and societal expectations reinforced hegemonic femininity, emphasizing obedience and domesticity, which often restricted autonomy and perpetuated gender inequalities. Dynamics of Modern Life: Engagement with modern spaces—such as universities, cafés, workplaces, and digital platforms—created opportunities for individual expression and identity experimentation, while also introducing new pressures, including ideals based on appearance and the need for social validation. Structural and Cultural Challenges: Legal restrictions, parental control, and public surveillance, including harassment, continued to impact the lived experiences of girls, reinforcing patriarchal control and limiting personal freedom. Fragmented Lived Experience: As girls navigated the tension between traditional and modern expectations, they often adopted multiple and sometimes contradictory roles across different social contexts. This multiplicity not only fostered adaptability and creative self-representation, but also generated psychological tension and identity fragmentation. Gendered Subjectivity and Agency: Despite facing constraints, adolescent girls actively engaged in negotiation, resistance, and redefinition of norms, creating alternative spaces for self-expression and asserting their gendered agency. The core category—Fluid Gender Performance—captured the central process, through which girls in Yazd navigated the tensions between traditional expectations and modern values. Rather than conforming to a fixed notion of femininity, participants actively constructed context-dependent identities by performing multiple expressions of femininity. This study revealed that girlhood emerged as a dynamic, negotiated, and often contradictory experience—one that was simultaneously constrained by structural and cultural forces and enriched by moments of agency, creativity, and transformation. Positioned at the intersection of tradition and modernity, adolescent girls in Yazd actively engaged in the re-articulation of gender roles and identities. This research offered a nuanced understanding of girlhood as a fluid, performative, and contested category shaped by ongoing sociocultural negotiations. The findings contribute to broader discussions in gender studies by highlighting how localized experiences of girlhood reflect global currents of gender fluidity, resistance, and identity reconstruction.

Introduction In previous decades, marriage has been more prevalent, while cohabitation has been largely limited to specific social groups. However, attitudes toward cohabitation are shifting in many countries, resulting in its increased acceptance and prevalence. In Iran, although some young people still hold disapproving views about cohabitation, its occurrence is rising, particularly in major cities like Tehran. The theory of the second demographic transition highlights that growing individualism, secularism, and gender egalitarianism have contributed to the emergence of new family structures, including cohabitation. This article aimed to explore young individuals' perspectives on cohabitation and analyze the factors influencing these attitudes. Materials & Methods This study conducted a secondary analysis of data from the 2020 National Survey of Values and Attitudes of Youth. The data collection tool for this survey was a questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews. The sample comprised 11,573 individuals aged 18 to 35 years, residing in both urban and rural areas across 31 provinces of the country. A multi-stage sampling method was employed for sample selection. The demographic characteristics of the sample were as follows: the average age of respondents was approximately 27 years. Most participants (about 53%) were unemployed. In terms of religion, the majority of the sample population (89%) identified as Shia Muslims and 74% of respondents resided in urban areas. The dependent variable was the attitude toward cohabitation measured using a question on a 5-point Likert scale. Independent variables included demographic factors (gender, age, marital status, education level, employment status, ethnicity, religion, and place of residence), family-related factors (economic status of the household, family cohesion, and supervision), attitudes toward marriage and interactions with the opposite sex, and a cultural consumption index. For the multivariable analysis, the Ordinal Logistic Regression test was utilized. Discussion of Results & Conclusion The findings indicated that approximately 31% of participants held modern views on marriage and its stability, while 55% adopted moderate views and 14% maintained traditional perspectives. About 63% of respondents had a favorable outlook on friendships between girls and boys, whereas around 28% opposed such relationships. Moreover, the data revealed that the majority of respondents did not support cohabitation, with only about 15% expressing a positive attitude toward it. Although the acceptance of cohabitation remained low in Iranian society, the increasing trend compared to the 2015 survey on values and attitudes suggested that this phenomenon could become significant in the future. Consequently, one of the challenges facing marriage and family formation in the coming decades will be the rising trend of cohabitation. The analysis also showed that individuals with a favorable view of cohabitation were typically male, unmarried, aged 18 to 23 years, unemployed, of Persian ethnicity, and residing in urban areas. Furthermore, the results of the ordinal logistic regression analysis indicated that various demographic factors—such as gender, age, marital status, ethnicity, religion, and place of residence—along with family socioeconomic status, attitudes toward marriage, interactions with the opposite sex, and cultural consumption positively influenced attitudes toward cohabitation. Conversely, the multivariable analysis revealed a significant negative relationship between family cohesion and monitoring and attitudes toward cohabitation. In other words, as family cohesion and oversight increased, favorable attitudes toward cohabitation decreased. The model demonstrated a relatively good fit, collectively explaining about one-third of the variance in the dependent variable. These findings align with the assumptions of theories related to diffusion, social control, the second demographic transition, and cultural change, which provide suitable explanations for attitudes toward cohabitation. In conclusion, this study underscored that cohabitation, despite encountering some resistance, presented a significant challenge to the social and cultural norms of Iran. The rise in cohabitation was anticipated to become a key obstacle to traditional marriage and family structures in the years to come. Addressing this issue through awareness-raising initiatives and preventive measures is essential. Given the potential negative impacts of cohabitation on Iranian society, culture, and family well-being, further research in this area is advisable, along with the development of policies to support the marriage of young individuals.

IntroductionCritical thinking is recognized as one of the essential skills in higher education, particularly for university students preparing to enter the job market and professional environments. Given its significance, the need for a valid and standardized tool to assess students' lived experiences of critical thinking has become increasingly evident. Such an instrument would be invaluable for educational planners and researchers seeking to enhance curricula and pedagogical strategies. Moreover, the existing research gap in this domain underscores the necessity for further studies to develop culturally relevant assessment tools. Although several instruments have been created to assess critical thinking, most have been designed within Western cultural contexts, limiting their applicability to students in Iran. As a result, these tools may not align with the values, norms, and cultural experiences of this population. Additionally, the existing assessments tend to focus primarily on the cognitive dimensions of critical thinking—such as logical reasoning, analysis, and information evaluation—while overlooking its emotional, social, and motivational aspects. The lack of emphasis on personal narratives and lived experiences further neglects the qualitative dimensions of critical thinking. To address these gaps, this study aimed to design, develop, and validate a new questionnaire that captured the students' lived experiences of critical thinking at the University of Isfahan and Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. A mixed-methods research design employing a sequential exploratory (qualitative followed by quantitative) approach was utilized. The newly developed instrument consisted of 5 main sub-factors and a total of 50 items. Various analyses, including factor analysis, were conducted to ensure the questionnaire's validity and reliability. The study targeted the student population of the University of Isfahan and Isfahan University of Medical Sciences during the academic year of 2023–2024. By developing and validating a culturally adapted instrument, this research contributed to a more comprehensive and accurate assessment of the students' lived experiences of critical thinking, ultimately enhancing educational strategies tailored to their needs. Materials & MethodsThis article presented findings from a research study conducted using a mixed-methods approach with a sequential exploratory (qualitative followed by quantitative) design. In the quantitative phase, the research methodology was applied characterized by descriptive, non-experimental data collection methods. Data analysis involved correlation and factor analysis techniques. The statistical population for this study comprised all students at the University of Isfahan and Isfahan University of Medical Sciences during the academic year of 1402-1403, totaling approximately 26,000 individuals. The information about this population was organized by university, faculty, academic level, and gender. Statistical methods were employed at the two descriptive and inferential levels. Descriptive statistics included indices of central tendency and dispersion, such as mean and standard deviation, along with absolute and relative distributions of the studied students. The majority of statistical analyses were conducted at the inferential level. This included the use of correlation coefficients and their significance, exploratory factor analysis to extract latent factors from the developed research items (involving estimation of factor loadings and their significance, evaluation of eigenvalues based on the Kaiser criterion, and creation of scree plots), as well as confirmatory factor analysis to test the hierarchical structure of the final factor model, including the potential for second-order factors. Data-driven Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with the Partial Least Squares (PLS) approach (PLS-SEM) was also utilized. To assess the validity and reliability of the factor measurements, Cronbach's alpha coefficients, composite reliability coefficients, and the Fornell-Larcker matrix were employed. Discussion of Results & ConclusionThe analyses conducted revealed that the factorial structure of the designed instrument initially comprised 12 factors, which were subsequently refined to 7 final factors. This reduction was achieved by eliminating factors with lower loadings or insufficient explanatory power in accounting for data variance. The final seven factors, encompassing 37 items, were as follows: honorable and responsible existence, organizational destructiveness, thinking beyond, conservative organization, multiple encounters, cost-reward duality, and uncritical authority. The findings of this study indicated a strong connection between critical thinking and an honorable and responsible way of living, where critical thinking was closely intertwined with ethical and professional behaviors. Students demonstrating higher levels of critical thinking were generally more attuned to their surroundings and inclined toward ethical conduct. The factor of "multiple encounters" suggested that personal development was enhanced by strengthening critical thinking; however, if the organizational culture of the university did not promote openness and honesty, it might impede this growth. The factor of "organizational destructiveness" highlighted structural, cultural, and social barriers that restricted students' engagement in critical thinking. Additionally, mandatory and prescriptive curricula significantly limited the capacity for critical thinking. The factor of "cost-reward duality" illustrated the challenges and contradictions students encountered when exercising critical thinking. In many instances, the exercising critical thinking at the university entailed social, psychological, or even academic costs. Nevertheless, some students with robust critical thinking skills exhibited greater resilience in facing crises and challenges, embracing critical thinking as a guiding principle, which enhanced their satisfaction and enthusiasm. Two newly identified factors—conservative organization and uncritical authority—underscored the importance of cultural and social influences in shaping the students' critical thinking. The statistical analyses demonstrated strong and significant correlations among the various dimensions of critical thinking, reinforcing confidence in the instrument's validity and reliability. Given that this scale effectively assessed diverse aspects of critical thinking, it could also be employed to evaluate critical thinking in other academic contexts. Ultimately, the findings of this study could aid educational administrators and policymakers in designing academic programs and policies that fostered environments conducive to the effective development of critical thinking. It is recommended that educational settings be structured to encourage critical thinking and intellectual independence among students. Universities can play a pivotal role in enhancing students' critical thinking skills by creating open spaces for discussion and debate, thereby promoting an active and engaged learning culture.