The forest ecosystem of Ise Forest Reserve in Nigeria is threatened by land-use conversion and timber exploitation. However, part of the enclave was managed under the Southwest/Niger Delta Forest Project, described as the “managed zone”. This study investigated spatial differences in vegetation condition and temporal patterns of land-cover degradation by integrating systematic field sampling, remote sensing and geographic information technologies. Eleven 25 × 25 m plots were laid along 200 m transects during a field sampling exercise carried out in disturbed and managed zones and were used to test differences in species diversity and structural attributes. In total, 27 species (17 families) were recorded, with Ricinodendron heudelotii achieving the highest frequency (n = 55) and Diospyros lotus exhibiting the most significant mean height (12.20 ± 0.00 m), canopy cover (18.60 ± 0.00 m), and diameter at breast height, DBH (138.13 ± 0.00 cm). Significant differences (p < 0.001) in height, DBH, and canopy cover were observed between the disturbed and managed zones. Vegetation diversity was higher in the managed zone than in the disturbed zone. The values of the Shannon–Wiener, Simpson concentration, and Margalef richness indices were higher in the managed zone than in the disturbed zone. The lower rates of farmland expansion and secondary forest loss in the managed zone indicated spatial differences in the severity of land degradation. Since data on the area’s pre-intervention stage for direct comparison were not available, the differences between the managed and disturbed zones could not be attributed solely to the 2021 conservation project and remain subject to review in a long-term evaluation.
Understanding the relationship between tree height and diameter at breast height (DBH) is crucial for forest growth modeling, while understory vegetation plays a key role in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem stability. However, in subtropical Cunninghamia lanceolata plantations, especially in the mountainous areas of southern Jiangxi, comprehensive studies simultaneously evaluating tree height-DBH models and understory diversity across different stand ages are still relatively scarce.This study selected 910 Cunninghamia lanceolata in the artificial forest of southern Jiangxi, China. Their height-diameter at breast height data were fitted with nine growth functions, while the composition, floristic elements, and species diversity of the understory shrubs and herbaceous plants were investigated and analyzed. Finally, Mantel correlation tests were conducted. Among the nine candidate height-diameter models evaluated using an internal validation approach, the Quadratic, Mixed, and Exponential models performed the best, with the Quadratic model having the highest R2 value of 0.6429, an RMSE ranging from 2.3904 to 2.4255 m, and an MAE ranging from 1.8964 to 1.9237. Vegetation diversity analysis revealed a total of 43 families, 64 genera, and 74 species of understory plants. The Simpson diversity index for the shrub layer ranged between 0.9364 and 0.9381, and the Shannon-Wiener diversity index ranged between 0.1648 and 0.1687. It indicates that the species diversity value is highest in the middle-aged forest plots, while the evenness value is highest in the mature forest plots. The 43 families of understory plants were divided into 7 distribution types, and the 64 genera into 13 distribution types, with understory plants exhibiting a clear phylogeographic association in their distribution types. The Mantel correlation test indicated that both tree height and diameter at breast height showed mostly insignificant negative correlations with understory vegetation diversity indices, while there were significant differentiated association patterns among the diversity indices themselves. Given the presence of confounding factors and the limited sample size, this analysis did not provide strong evidence sufficient to demonstrate a consistent correlation.
The survival of trees in dryland ecosystems depends on the balance between high atmospheric evaporative demand and episodic soil moisture availability. This study investigated the short-term hydraulic responses of two tree species to discrete summer rainfall pulses in Rajasthan, India. Continuous sap flow was monitored from April 2024 to July 2024 using the Heat Ratio Method (HRM), capturing three rainfall events per species (six events in total; 1.1–19.9 mm). Because the two species were monitored at different sites, species identity and site conditions were inherently confounded; therefore, the findings are presented as functional response patterns under contrasting site conditions rather than controlled interspecific comparisons. Statistical analyses were performed using tree × rainfall event as the independent unit of replication. Anogeissus latifolia exhibited a mean 41.7
India harbours one of the largest extents of tropical forest in the world, and these forests are central to the country”s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and national climate policy. While global reviews (e.g. [11, 77, 124]) have assessed pantropical carbon balances, region-specific evidence for India, and particularly for the ecologically distinct dry and moist deciduous forests of Central India, has remained fragmented. This critical synthesis addresses that gap by consolidating 20 years (2005–2025) of India-focused literature on forest carbon dynamics. Tropical forests cover nearly half of the world”s forests and act as a major carbon sink. However, they are losing their capacity to store carbon, and the gap between carbon sources and sinks has widened over the past two decades. This critical synthesis (systematic review) consolidates information from 223 research articles on carbon dynamics in Indian tropical forests that were published between 2005 and 2025 — a 20-year window that we define as "long-term" for this study, spanning two full India State of Forest Report assessment cycles and the entire post-2005 period against which India”s NDC baseline and forest-carbon commitments are tracked. Current evidence from the available regional studies suggests that parts of Central India may be transitioning from net carbon sinks toward net carbon sources,this pattern is not yet established for Indian forests as a whole. A net carbon loss of 59 Gg C has been recorded over the last 20 years. Meanwhile, aboveground biomass (ABG) and soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks fluctuated between 26.4 to 131.1 Mg C ha−1 and 24.6 to 50.2 Mg C ha−1, respectively. Human activities such as deforestation, agricultural expansion, and infrastructure development contribute significantly to this carbon loss. This, in turn, is linked to more frequent and severe climate change impacts. Climate model projections warn of alarming forest alterations by 2050, emphasizing the need for immediate action. Currently, most tropical moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forests are vulnerable to climate change. Therefore, effective mitigation requires cohesive strategies, including sustainable forest management (SFM), Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD +), community forest resource rights, agroforestry outside forests, and invasive species management to reduce carbon emissions.
Accurate dendrometric measurements are fundamental for forest inventory, biomass and carbon stock estimation, and sustainable forest management. Smartphone-based applications are increasingly promoted as low-cost alternatives to conventional measurement tools; however, their performance under Nepalese forest conditions remains largely untested. This study compared different smartphone applications including Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)-assisted iPhone Operating System (iOS), non-LiDAR iOS, and Android to evaluate the accuracy of diameter at breast height (DBH), height, and canopy measurements in a peri-urban forest of Hetauda sub-metropolitan municipality, Makwanpur, Central Nepal. A total of 668 trees from 75 forest plots were sampled using a purposive design to capture a wide range of DBH and height across Sal-dominated and mixed-species plots, and 100 isolated trees in and around residential areas were evaluated individually. DBH measurements were highly accurate (R2 > 0.95) for both Android and LiDAR-assisted iOS applications, while height measurements showed moderate accuracy (R2 = 0.80–0.82) due to inherent challenges in estimating tree height. Canopy structure metrics were weakly to moderately correlated with reference data (r = 0.34–0.44), with absolute errors generally within an acceptable range (< 10
Tropical savannas, including the Brazilian Cerrado, face significant woody encroachment linked to fire suppression. We investigated floristic composition, horizontal and vertical structure, and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) time series in a 1-hectare plot within Chapada dos Guimarães National Park. This area has been fire-excluded since 1997, and it was represented by scattered trees and shrubs over a grassy layer. We found 60 tree species, including a new Tabebuia species (not yet described), with a notable dominance of tree species typical of Cerradão forests (58
The rich phyto-biodiversity of the Eastern Himalayas are at risk due to climate change, overexploitation, natural calamities, and commercialization in agriculture and forestry land use. This study aimed to ascertain the forest genetic resources (FGR), the different systems of land use, and the prevalence of bamboos in the homesteads of Tamenglong and Noney districts of Manipur, in the Indian Eastern Himalayas. The study found that 63 species of FGR (52 Native and 11 Alien) having diverse uses are being conserved in the homesteads. Native FGR of conservation concern includes Aquilaria malaccensis, Cinnamomum tamala, Garcinia pedunculata, Oroxylum indicum, Phyllanthus emblica and Toona ciliata. Seven different systems viz. AgriHortiSilviPastoral (AHSPL), AgriHortiSilvi (AHS), HortiSilvi (HS), Horti (H), Silvi (S), AgriSilviPastoral (ASPL), and HortiPastoral (HPL) land use were classified based on the composition of the crops and livestock in the total 120 homesteads studied. The study also found that bamboos (10 species) are important component found in a total of 72 land use across all the 7 classified types. Melocanna baccifera was the most common bamboo species found across five land use systems (AHSPL, AHS, HS, H and ASPL) in a total of 24 homesteads. Bambusa tulda (density 29.46 per acre), M. Baccifera (density 15.48 per acre) and Parkia timoriana (density 3.86 per acre) were the dominant FGR in AHSPL. In AHS the dominant FGRs were Gmelina arborea (density of 55.09 per acre), B. tulda (density of 21.0 per acre) and P. timoriana (density of 20.75 per acre). M. baccifera (density of 141.67 per acre), D. hamiltonii (density of 97.0 per acre) and G. Arborea (density of 91.81 per acre) were the most dominant FGR in the HS system. The Horti system had G. arborea (density of 55.09 per acre in 6 plots), M. baccifera (density of 38.52 per acre in 7 plots) as important FGR. In the Silvi system of the homesteads B. tulda has the highest density at 287.52 per acre, with D. hamiltonii (density of 230.02 per acre) and B. nutans (density of 143.76 per acre) as the second and third most prevalent FGR. In the ASPL system the dominant FGR included M. baccifera (density of 19.01), P. timoriana (density of 10.05 per acre) and C. tamala (density of 6.49 per acre). The HPL system had only two plots and hence less FGR species representation with B. Tulda (density of 14.11 per acre), Gigantochloa atter (density of 3.02 per acre) and Tamarindus indica (density of 0.50 per acre). The integration of multiple components trees, annual crops, perennial horticultural species, livestock, and in some cases aquaculture in these HLUs represents sophisticated land-use intensification that maximizes productivity while maintaining ecosystem stability and resilience to environmental variability and market fluctuations. The study thus confirmed that the homestead land use practiced by the Rongmei indigenous community are a sustainable land use system that conserves important FGR. To ensure sustenance and biodiversity enhancement bamboo-based homesteads of different component mixture can be promoted.
This study advances the understanding of land cover dynamics and socio-ecological transitions in Central African mining landscapes through a high-temporal-resolution analysis of the Luilu sector (southeastern DR Congo), a representative zone of the Katangese Copperbelt where mining, agriculture, and urbanization converge. By integrating ten Landsat epochs (1990–2024) with landscape-ecological indices within the Google Earth Engine environment, the research reconstructs three decades of spatial reorganization with multi-epoch analysis. The approach quantifies both the compositional and structural dimensions of Miombo woodland transformation using metrics of fragmentation, connectivity, and fractal complexity. Results reveal a pronounced contraction of forested areas (− 11.9
Abstract Agroforestry, integrating crops, trees, and livestock, is an important land-use practice, yet it remains poorly documented in Ethiopia’s Quara district. This study assessed the diversity, management, and importance of woody species in the highlands of Quara. Data were collected from a 5% random sample of households in two kebeles using structured questionnaires, alongside vegetation inventories in homegardens (30 × 30 m), coffee shade (20 × 25 m), grazing land (40 × 40 m), and parkland (50 × 50 m). Species abundance and diversity were analyzed using standard indices, and socio-economic data were summarized with descriptive statistics. A total of 31 woody species from 20 families were recorded, with diversity and evenness varying across systems. Homegardens exhibited the highest diversity (2.33 ± 0.094), reflecting effective management practices. Many species served as food, shade, and fodder, emphasizing their multifunctional roles. The study highlights the importance of indigenous management practices, such as pruning and thinning, while noting the need for technological support, policy enhancement, and further socio-economic research to promote sustainable agroforestry, resilience, and local livelihoods.
This study assessed tree diversity and quantified carbon storage and biomass patterns in the Girnar Hills, Gujarat, a semi-arid forest ecosystem for which quantitative baseline carbon data remain limited. Vegetation sampling was carried out using a quadrat method along two stairway routes (old and new stairways). A total of 90 quadrats (10 × 10 m), together covering approximately 0.9 ha (90 × 100 m2 quadrats), were established at 70 m intervals, and all trees with a diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 10 cm were enumerated. In total, 528 individuals representing 52 species and 22 families were recorded. Tree girth and height were measured in the field, and biomass was estimated using a generalised allometric equation for tropical dry deciduous forests. Below-ground biomass was derived using a fixed conversion factor (0.26), and carbon stock was calculated assuming 50
Agroforestry parklands are a key land use in the Sahel, where they are central to the productivity of these areas and to the overall success of agroecosystems under variable climatic conditions and soils. However, there is currently an insufficient quantification of the distribution of woody, crop, and herbaceous biomass components along rainfall gradients and of their relative contributions. In this paper, we seek to quantify and characterize the variability of aboveground biomass, its structural elements, and their variability along a gradient driven by isohyet in central-southern Niger. Data were collected during the rainy season in the Maradi area along a north-south rainfall gradient (200–500 mm) using a stratified sampling strategy, covering 96 plots (2,500 m2) for woody biomass, within which 485 trees were measured, and 480 crop area quadrats (25 m2), as well as 480 herbaceous area quadrats (1 m2). We used a mixed-method approach to estimate the aboveground biomass, including non-destructive methods for woody biomass and destructive methods for crop and herbaceous biomass. Our results indicate that the total aboveground biomass level had a large increase on the rainfall gradient, from the value of 2680 ± 420 kg DM ha−1 in the 200–300 mm zone to 5090 ± 1120 kg DM ha−1 in the 400–500 mm zone (p < 0.001). The system was dominated by crop biomass (70–82
Abstract Background Rapid urbanization and intensive land use have degraded environmental quality in metropolitan regions, increasing the need for management strategies that enhance climate resilience. Urban and peri-urban Agroforestry Systems (AFS) are promising nature-based solutions for carbon sequestration and soil restoration. Methods This study evaluated the carbon mitigation potential of AFS in the Belo Horizonte Metropolitan Region, Brazil. We analyzed total organic carbon (TOC), its physical fractions (Particulate Organic Matter – POM and Mineral-Associated Organic Matter – MAOM), and aggregate-associated carbon in three AFS and paired reference areas. Statistical analyses included comparisons between treatments and Principal Component Analysis (PCA), interpreted as an exploratory tool. Results AFS increased soil carbon stocks by an average of 44% compared to reference areas, with a mean sequestration rate of 10.7 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. The MAOM fraction showed consistent increases across depths, suggesting enhanced long-term carbon stabilization, while POM increases were more pronounced in surface layers. Aggregate-associated carbon did not show clear statistical differences, but a tendency of accumulation in macroaggregates at 10–20 cm depth was observed. PCA showed a separation pattern between AFS and reference sites, indicating an association of AFS with greater carbon accumulation, including at deeper layers. Conclusion Urban and peri-urban AFS are effective carbon sinks that enhance both the quantity and stability of soil organic carbon. These findings reinforce the role of AFS as crucial nature-based solutions for climate mitigation and sustainable planning in tropical metropolitan landscapes.
Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg (Moraceae), a Near Threatened West and Central African hardwood of high commercial and ecological value, faces persistent regeneration failure attributable primarily to gall-forming psyllids of the genus Phytolyma Walker (Hemiptera: Psyllidae). Of 312 records identified through a PRISMA-compliant search of five databases, 25 primary studies met inclusion criteria and were synthesised narratively. These covered the biology of Phytolyma fusca Walker (Nigeria) and P. lata (Scott) (Ghana; Côte d’Ivoire). Two taxonomically distinct species treated as functionally comparable on the basis of shared host range, gall biology, and damage profiles; direct cross-species experimental validation of management responses remains limited; older Nigerian literature referred to the Nigerian psyllid as P. lata before taxonomic revision, and data from such studies are attributed to P. fusca accordingly. Nymphal salivary secretions induce sealed leaf galls, with infested seedlings recording stem biomass reductions of up to 68.9
Land-use change, deforestation, fires, and human activities are altering forest ecosystems in the Western Himalaya, impacting natural regeneration and biodiversity. Soil seed banks are crucial for forest resilience, storing viable seeds for vegetation recovery after disturbances. This study examined soil seed bank characteristics in three main forest types in Dehradun district, Uttarakhand, India: Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. (Sal), Pinus roxburghii Sarg. (Chir Pine), and mixed Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) (Deodar) forests. Soil samples were collected from 0–5 cm and 5–10 cm depths in each forest type using 1 m × 1 m quadrats. Seedling emergence was monitored in a greenhouse for eight weeks, and species identification and seed density calculations were done. Statistical analyses and diversity indices were used to compare germination patterns and community composition. A total of 371 seedlings from 15 species emerged, with herbaceous species dominating, especially in Pine forests. Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Commelinaceae were the most represented families. Pine forests had higher germination potential and seed density, driven by disturbance-tolerant species like Sorghum halepense. Sal forests had the highest species richness, diversity, and evenness, while Deodar forests had lower diversity and uneven species distribution. Different seed bank assemblages were observed across forest types, influenced by forest structure, canopy cover, and disturbance history. Invasive species like Parthenium hysterophorus pose a threat to native regeneration. This study highlights the impact of forest type on soil seed bank dynamics in the Western Himalaya, providing insights for forest management, restoration, and biodiversity conservation in the face of increasing human and climatic pressures.
The lack of accurate biomass estimation for Vachellia tortilis in Ethiopia’s Central Rift Valley (CRV) hinders the sustainable management of bioenrgy resources, leading to unregulated exploitation. This study aimed to develop species-specific allometric equations to accurately determine the biomass of V. tortilis for sustainable bioenergy production in Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha district, semi-arid area of Ethiopia. Using systematic sampling design across 31 plots, destructive sampling was performed on fifteen representative trees. The best performing model for predicting total aboveground biomass (AGB) was the non-linear power function Y = β1dshβ2hβ3, which utilized both diameter at stump height (dsh) and total height (h). This model achieved the highest precision (R2 =0. 97, D = 0.90) and lower error (RMSE = 36.55 kg, MPE = 0.605 kg). Results indicated that the crown (branch + foliage) contributes significantly to total biomass, accounting for 70
Forest disturbances increasingly influence terrestrial carbon dynamics, yet ecosystem responses depend on disturbance severity and post-disturbance environmental conditions. Using observations from the Forest Resilience Threshold Experiment (FoRTE), we develop a hierarchical mixed-effects modeling framework with threshold regression to investigate how disturbance severity shapes soil CO _2 flux and recovery trajectories. Results show that soil temperature is the dominant control on short-term flux variability, while soil moisture exerts a smaller positive influence after accounting for covariate interactions. Model selection identifies evidence for a potential high-severity disturbance threshold associated with altered flux responses; however, inference is conditional on the limited number of experimental plots and should be interpreted as exploratory. Recovery following disturbance is gradual, with higher soil moisture associated with faster modeled rebound. Leave-one-plot-out cross-validation indicates moderate predictive skill across spatial units, while diagnostic analyses highlight remaining structural uncertainty. These findings demonstrate the value of hierarchical threshold approaches for characterizing disturbance–recovery dynamics and provide a quantitative basis for future large-scale assessments of forest carbon resilience under increasing disturbance regimes.
Agroforestry has emerged as an important land-use strategy for addressing global challenges such as food security, environmental degradation, and livelihood sustainability. With increasing population pressure and declining agricultural and forest lands, nature-based solutions like agroforestry offer sustainable pathways to enhance food production, maintain soil fertility, and generate diversified income opportunities for rural communities. By integrating trees with crops and livestock, agroforestry systems mimic natural ecosystems and provide multiple ecological benefits, including improved soil health, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience. In addition to ecological advantages, agroforestry contributes to poverty alleviation and supports several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Recognizing its potential, India became the first country to adopt the National Agroforestry Policy in 2014, aimed at promoting agroforestry for employment generation, industrial utilization, and value addition. Furthermore, the GROW report by NITI Aayog estimates that approximately 55.76 million hectares of wastelands in India could be restored through agroforestry interventions. This review highlights the role of agroforestry in addressing food security, environmental restoration, and rural economic development, while also examining the progress of government policies supporting agroforestry initiatives. Strengthening policy support and investment in agroforestry can enhance sustainability, improve rural livelihoods, and promote resilient landscape restoration, positioning agroforestry as a key strategy for sustainable development.
Expansion of agriculture along forest edges influences the socio-ecological sustainability of agricultural and forest ecosystems as well as human livelihoods. This study assessed the spatio-temporal extent of rubber plantations located inside and adjacent to forests in Kerala, India, using multi-decadal geospatial datasets and developed a rubber-forest interface area index (RFAI) to quantify district-level contributions to statewide rubber-forest adjacency. Spatial extent of rubber plantations and forest boundaries for the period 1970, 2000 and 2022 was generated using Survey of India toposheets, Landsat 7 ETM+, Sentinel-2 MSI satellite data and ground-truth information. Results indicate an accelerated expansion of RFAI, with cumulative increases of 22,241 ha between 1970 and 2000 and 31,509 ha between 2000 and 2022. Of the total rubber area in Kerala in 2022, approximately 1.9
Ghana’s timber export sector has experienced unstable trend despite the implementation of major forest governance and plantation development initiatives intended to improve resource sustainability and market competitiveness. This study evaluates the relationship between forest resource availability, policy interventions, and timber export performance using annual data from 2000 to 2023. An integrated analytical framework combining multivariate regression, Interrupted Time Series Regression (ITSR), and ARIMA-based intervention modeling was employed to assess long-term trends, policy impacts, and future export trajectories. Trend analysis indicated a 36.4
