Loxoprofen sodium, a propionic acid derivative and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), is widely prescribed for the management of pain, inflammation, and musculoskeletal disorders. As its therapeutic application expands, robust and precise analytical methods are essential to ensure the quality, safety, and efficacy of loxoprofen sodium in bulk drug substances, pharmaceutical formulations, and biological matrices. In recent years, significant progress has been made in the development and validation of analytical approaches, including UV spectrophotometry, RP-HPLC, HPTLC, and advanced UHPLC techniques. Optimization of chromatographic parameters, such as mobile phase composition, column selection, and detection wavelength, has enhanced sensitivity, resolution, and reproducibility. Method validation, in line with ICH guidelines, routinely evaluates accuracy, precision, linearity, specificity, and robustness to confirm reliability. Stability-indicating methods are particularly important for assessing degradation under stress conditions, providing insight into drug stability and shelf-life. Current analytical trends emphasize green and quality-by-design (QbD) approaches, supporting eco-friendly and efficient method development. Collectively, these analytical advancements establish a comprehensive framework for the routine quality control and research of loxoprofen sodium, reinforcing its clinical relevance and regulatory compliance.
Drug nanocrystals, composed solely of active substance and stabilizer, have recently been proposed for cutaneous applications, including the management of skin fungal infections (dermatomycoses), which are often difficult to treat. Clioquinol nanocrystals were obtained using different preparation methods, drug concentrations, surfactants, and bead sizes. The selected nanocrystal suspension (bead milling, 1% drug, 1% polysorbate 80) exhibited an average particle size of approximately 300 nm (polydispersity index of 0.254), a zeta potential of −7.6 mV, a pH value of 5.4, a drug content of about 97% (relative to 10 mg/mL), and a nanocrystallization efficiency of approximately 96%. The presence of the surfactant was essential to ensure nanocrystal stability for 90 days at room temperature. Overall, the results indicate that clioquinol nanocrystals are possible to be obtained by small-scale wet bead milling and present suitable nanometric features, being considered a promising alternative as cutaneous antifungal therapy.
Marbofloxacin (MFN) is a fluoroquinolone drug used in veterinary medicine to treat dogs and cats with skin and appendage infections, urinary tract infections, gastrointestinal infections, and respiratory infections. The objective of this study was to develop and validate an analytical method for determining MFN in palatable tablets for animal use. The MFN raw material was characterized using thin-layer chromatography, infrared (IR) absorption spectroscopy, and melting range spectroscopy to ensure its quality for use in validating the spectrophotometric analytical method. Method validation was performed based on the parameters of specificity, linearity, precision, accuracy, limits of detection and quantification, and robustness. In the calibration curve from 5 to 15 µg mL-1, the correlation value was 0.9990, in repeatability and intermediate precision the relative standard deviation was less than 1%, and the mean recoveries were 101.53 ± 0.4, the limits of detection and quantification were 0.033 and 0.625 μg mL-1, respectively. The method developed and validated for the quality control of MFN was sensitive, linear, precise, accurate and robust for its determination in pharmaceutical formulations for veterinary use.
Since nitrosamines (NAs) were first detected in pharmaceutical products in July 2018, new quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) strategies have emerged. However, few studies have explored the use of conventional FTMIR or ATR-FTMIR spectroscopy for quantifying these impurities. This study evaluated and compared the analytical performance of both ATR-FTMIR and FTMIR KBr-pellet methods for the quantification of four nitrosamines: NDMA, NDEA, NDIPA, and NDBA. Limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were determined for each compound using both techniques. Initially, NDEA was analyzed in methanol solution; subsequently, all four nitrosamines were assessed in potassium bromide (KBr) matrices using both methodologies simultaneously. For NDEA in methanol, the ATR-FTMIR method yielded an LOD of 2.77 × 10⁻³% (v/v) and an LOQ of 9.22 × 10⁻³% (v/v). For NDMA analyzed by ATR-FTMIR with KBr, the LOD and LOQ were approximately 4.94 × 10⁻⁴% and 1.65 × 10⁻³%, respectively. The best sensitivity was achieved for NDBA using the FTMIR KBr-pellet method, which gave the lowest overall values: an LOD of 5.52 × 10⁻⁶% and an LOQ of 1.83 × 10⁻⁵%. The four nitrosamines exhibited distinct physicochemical properties that influenced their spectral responses and, consequently, their analytical performance under the tested conditions. When comparing the two techniques, only the FTMIR KBr-pellet method yielded LODs within regulatory limits for the qualitative detection of NDBA and NDIPA, indicating its superior sensitivity for these compounds.
Valproic acid (VPA) is widely used for epilepsy management, however VPA serum concentration must be monitored because its narrow therapeutic range. Some methods are used to determine the plasma or serum VPA concentration, among them immunoassay-based tests are the most used. Although immunoassays may present cross-responses with other drugs or AE metabolites, increasing the uncertainty of the method. For this reason, a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in tandem (LC-MS/MS) method was developed, validated and compared with particle-enhanced turbidimetric inhibition immunoassay (PETINIA). For method optimization, the protein precipitation solvent was methanol and isopropanol (3:1) and a biphenyl column (50 x 3.0 mm, 2.7 μm) was used. The method showed selectivity and specificity, and it was linear from 25 to 450 µg/mL, presenting variation coefficient lower than 8,4% and inaccuracy within 10,9%. The matrix effect was 103.9%. The VPA quantification by both methods had good correlation and the VPA assay by LC-MS/MS was 6,85% higher when compared to the immunoassay, but it still gives the same clinical stratification. The validation was successful, with easy sample preparation and appropriate selectivity, applicable for VPA therapeutic drug monitoring.
Erythropoietin (EPO) is an endogenous glycoprotein essential for erythropoiesis regulation and is produced mainly by the kidneys and to a lesser extent by the liver. Its synthesis is stimulated by hypoxia and regulated by a complex feedback system. Endogenous EPO has 165 amino acids and plays a critical role in the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of erythroid progenitor cells through intracellular signaling pathways such as JAK2/STAT5, MAPK/ERK, and PI3K/AKT. Recombinant erythropoietin (rhEPO), produced in CHO cells using recombinant DNA technology, share the structure and biological activity of endogenous EPO and is widely used to treat anemia associated with chronic kidney disease, chemotherapy, chronic inflammatory diseases, and HIV/AIDS. It is also administered in elective surgery to reduce transfusion needs. However, rhEPO is misused in sports doping because it increases red blood cells, enhances oxygen delivery and physical performance. This misuse is common in endurance sports and presents technical, ethical, and medical concerns. To address this, analytical methods—including isoelectric focusing, SDS-PAGE, and isoform profiling—have been developed to detect exogenous EPO. Nevertheless, these techniques still face challenges related to sensitivity, microheterogeneity, and overlapping between endogenous and recombinant forms. This work reviews the biochemical, clinical, and technological aspects of erythropoietin, emphasizing analytical strategies for its detection, therapeutic applications, and ongoing challenges in anti-doping contexts.
Chrysin is a flavonoid with many biological and medicinal activities, such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and antioxidant properties, and has medicinal value. Based on the Quality by Design approach, the present study used a UV-spectrophotometer to develop a bioanalytical method for chrysin in human plasma. The validation of the method was performed as per ICH M10 guidelines. The technique was performed using methanol as a solvent and the spectrum was recorded at a wavelength of 370 nm. The spiked chrysin from plasma was extracted using the protein precipitation method. The developed method was linear with an r2 value of 0.9996 over a concentration range of 4-20 μg/ml. The results of all validation parameters are found to be within the accepted limits with a % RSD value of less than 2% and the % recovery was greater than 95%. The % RSD and % recovery results confirmed that the method was precise and accurate in the study. LOD and LOQ values in plasma samples were found to be 0.47 μg/ml and 1.43 μg/ml respectively. The stability studies like freeze-thaw, and short-term stability studies were also performed and proved the reliability of the method. Therefore, the developed bioanalytical method can effectively estimate chrysin in plasma samples within its sensitivity limits.
Cefoperazone (CPZ) is a third-generation cephalosporin used to treat bovine mastitis. The association with steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as prednisolone (PRED), provides an improvement in the animal's clinical response, which justifies its use. An analytical method capable of simultaneously determining the association between CPZ and PRED by High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with a Diode Array Detector (HPLC-DAD) was developed. The method was applied in intramammary ointments, showing linearity, for CPZ, from 0.25 to 25 μg mL-1 (r=0.9999); and, for PRED, from 0.75 to 30 μg mL-1 (r=0.9997), with low limits of detection and quantification, precision with coefficients of variation less than 2%, in accuracy, presented recovery close to 100% for both drugs, in addition to demonstrating their robustness by the Youden test, which evaluated the effects and concluded that the altered parameters in the test were not sufficient to change the values obtained in the determinations. The test was also applied to the commercial sample for quality control purposes, with extraction efficiency being 69.66% for CPZ and 72.36% for PRED. Thus, the developed and validated method can be safely applied in the analysis of the studied drugs.
Dexamethasone (DEX) is a synthetic glucocorticoid widely used in the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. However, its clinical efficacy is limited by low water solubility, poor bioavailability, and a high incidence of side effects. To overcome these limitations, nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems, such as nanoemulsions, have emerged as promising alternatives, particularly when combined with nasal administration targeting the treatment of neuroinflammation in the central nervous system. This study describes the validation of an analytical and bioanalytical method using high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV) for the quantification of DEX active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) in nanoemulsions, porcine nasal mucosa, and mouse plasma and brain tissue. The method was validated according to current regulatory guidelines and was based on a procedure previously described in the 7th edition of the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia (2024). The method demonstrated specificity, with no interference from endogenous components of the matrices. Linearity was confirmed in the range of 0.5 to 10.0 µg mL⁻¹ for standard solutions, nanoemulsion, porcine nasal mucosa, and mouse plasma, and from 1.0 to 10.0 µg mL⁻¹ for mouse brain samples, with correlation coefficients (r) greater than 0.99. The method has also been shown to be precise, accurate and with low matrix effect within regulatory acceptance criteria. These results confirm the method’s reliability for determination of DEX in both nanotechnological and biological matrices. The validated method is intended to support future performance studies of nanotechnology-based formulations for nasal administration of DEX.
Photoprotective substances are needed to minimize the harmful effects of UV radiation on the skin. In this context, the objective of this work was to develop and characterize a hydrogel containing spray-dried avobenzone and resveratrol loaded nanocapsules using titanium dioxide and microalgae as drying adjuvants. The nanocapsules, previously developed and characterized, were dried using the spray drying technique with the aid of titanium dioxide (3% w/v) and/or a mixture of it (2.7% w/v) with the microalgae of the species Scenedesmus ecornis as excipients (0.3% w/v). The powders showed good yields (67-70%), with low moisture content (<1.5%) and average particle size in the micrometer range (>30 µm). The drying process of spray-dried powders did not significantly affect the content of avobenzone and resveratrol (above 85% for both), although the morphological description indicates the presence of micro-agglomerates. Subsequently, the powders were incorporated into hydrophilic gels prepared with sodium acrylates copolymer and lecithin. Then, the hydrogel containing spray-dried avobenzone and resveratrol loaded nanocapsules was produced and characterized using titanium dioxide and microalgae (HG-NCA+R+TiM) as a drying adjuvant. The formulation was evaluated for irritability by HET-CAM, permeation/penetration of avobenzone, washability profile and in vitro efficacy. The hydrogel presented a pH value of 7.52, drug content of 1.24% for avobenzone (w/w) and 0.04% for resveratrol (w/w), and a non-Newtonian pseudoplastic rheological behavior. The free avobenzone from a hydrogel and from HG-NCA+R+TiM did not permeate the skin layers. The evaluation by HET-CAM did not detect irritating reactions of the formulation. The structure of HG-NCA+R+TiM allowed a greater resistance to the washing flow indicating good adhesive capacity on the skin surface in comparison to the free hydrogel. The in vitro efficacy test showed that HG-NCA+R+TiM absorbed and spreaded the UV light with maximum wavelengths in the erythematous range (305-328 nm). In conclusion, these spray-dried powders are promising formulations to be incorporated into photoprotective hydrogels intended for cutaneous administration.
Letrozole, a potent aromatase inhibitor, is commonly used in treating hormone-responsive breast cancer. With the rising incidence of breast cancer and increased demand for anticancer agents, this study aims to develop a green, cost-effective, and precise UV-spectrophotometric method for Letrozole estimation using Quality by Design (QbD) and Green Analytical Chemistry (GAC) approaches. A UV-spectrophotometric method was developed using an eco-friendly solvent system to improve the solubility and analytical efficiency of Letrozole. Method optimization was carried out using a QbD to ensure robustness and sustainability. The method was validated as per ICH Q2(R1) guidelines for linearity, accuracy, precision, specificity, and robustness, confirming its suitability for routine analysis. The developed method exhibited excellent linearity within the concentration range of 2–10 µg/mL, with a correlation coefficient (R²) of 0.9994. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were determined to be 0.870 µg/mL and 2.021 µg/mL, respectively. Precision, robustness, and ruggedness assessments demonstrated percent relative standard deviation values below 2%, indicating high method reproducibility and reliability. The mean recovery values ranged from 99.71% to 102.40%, confirming the method’s accuracy. Furthermore, the assay of marketed formulations yielded consistent results, supporting the suitability of the method for routine quality control applications. A novel, simple, eco-friendly, and QbD guided UV-spectrophotometric method was successfully developed and validated for the estimation of Letrozole in bulk and pharmaceutical dosage forms. The method is suitable for routine analytical applications due to its precision, accuracy, and environmental sustainability.
Clindamycin (CLIN) is an antibiotic derived from lincosamide, produced from Streptomyces lincolnensis. Studies in the literature demonstrate that the evaluation of this drug, although effective, predominantly uses analytical conditions with the use of toxic solvents, which are against the principles of Green Analytical Chemistry (GAC). In this context, the objective was to develop and validate an eco-friendly method by spectrophotometry in the ultraviolet (UV) region for the quantitative evaluation of CLIN in capsules. In addition, the proposed method was evaluated for greenness by the National Environmental Methods Index (NEMI), Ecological Scale Assessment (ESA) and Analytical GREEnness Metric (AGREE). Purified water and ethanol (50:50, v/v), quartz cuvette and wavelength of 318 nm and potassium permanganate as an oxidizing agent were used. The method was linear in the range of 0.5 to 5 µg mL-1 (0.9998), precise (RSD < 5 %); selective through spectral overlap and forced degradation; accurate (99.85%); robust to changes in wavelength and cuvette capacity; content analysis was of 102.55 % and NEMI presented all 4 green quadrants; ESA, score of 79, which characterizes an excellent green analysis; and AGREE score of 0.8, thus characterizing it as a green method through the 12 GAC principles. The method was developed and validated and can be used for quantitative evaluation of CLIN in capsules. Furthermore, the method was considered green through the greenness profiling tools NEMI, ESA and AGREE.
Filamentous fungi exhibit a complex morphology and can display various shapes depending on the species and environment. These characteristics serve as advantages in biotransformation studies by allowing substances to undergo processes that lead to the production of both existing metabolites and new compounds with potential pharmacological activity. In this regard, the biotransformation of drugs using microorganisms emerges as an economical and ecologically viable strategy for modifying the structures of biologically active compounds, studying the metabolism of molecules, and eliminating or reducing their toxicity. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the biotransformation capacity of the drug nitazoxanide by the endophytic fungi Aspergillus niger ATCC 9029 and Cunninghamella elegans ATCC 9245. High-performance liquid chromatography was employed to monitor metabolite formation, while ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with sequential mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF/MS) was utilized to identify these metabolites. After an incubation period of 240 hours, nitazoxanide was transformed into two metabolites by C. elegans. A. niger demonstrated a consumption rate of 94.17% for nitazoxanide, with two additional metabolites identified. This study highlights the potential of using fungi both as a model for metabolism and as a means of producing metabolites on a larger scale, while also identifying a new and significant area of application for the biotransformation approaches involving filamentous fungi.
A sustainable eco-friendly direct spectrophotometric method was developed and validated for the estimation of bisoprolol fumarate (BF) in the marketed dosage form. BF in an aqueous medium of 0.10 N NaOH exhibits a maximum absorption at 273 nm that permits its direct estimation by zero-order spectrophotometric method without any interference in a linear range of 1.66–190.0 μg mL-1 (r = 0.9999, n = 5) with detection and quantitation limits were 0.211 and 0.638 μg mL-1, respectively. The suggested method was successfully adopted to evaluate BF in bulk and tablets. The technique showed adequate precision, with a relative standard deviation value lower than 1.78%. Excellent values of accuracy were obtained, with a recovery mean value of 100.37%. The results indicated that the proposed method is highly efficient in determining the amount of BF in the tablets, which helps improve quality control and environmental improvement. Furthermore, the greenness and whiteness profile of the method was evaluated using different evaluation metrics; AES, AGREE, AGREEprep, GAPI, BAGI, and RGB12. The proposed spectrophotometric method was more sustainable, eco-friendly, efficient, productive, and practical than the reported HPLC-UV methods (BP and USP), as confirmed by the absence of consumption of chemical reagents and polluting organic solvents, reduced analysis stages, energy consumption, analysis time and low cost, making it a safer alternative to be considered.
This review article explores the critical application of High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) in analyzing medications for Erectile Dysfunction (ED) and Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH). HPLC is essential for the precise measurement of these drugs, whether assessed individually or within combination therapies. The review thoroughly examines various HPLC methodologies, encompassing both single-drug and simultaneous analysis techniques. It addresses the optimization of HPLC conditions and validation practices necessary for achieving reliable results. Key challenges in HPLC analysis are highlighted, including sensitivity issues and the need for specific adjustments in analytical procedures. The article discusses the influence of factors such as column types, mobile phases, and detection methods on HPLC performance. It offers detailed insights into optimizing parameters to enhance resolution and accuracy, providing practical guidance for researchers working with ED and BPH drugs. Moreover, the review outlines best practices for validating HPLC methods according to regulatory standards, which are crucial for maintaining the quality and reproducibility of analytical results. It also identifies potential areas for improvement, including enhancing method sensitivity and reducing analysis time. By emphasizing the importance of HPLC in maintaining high analytical standards for ED and BPH drug analysis, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers, clinicians, and pharmaceutical companies, ultimately aiming to enhance drug management and improve patient outcomes through better analytical practices and innovative approaches.
Onychomycosis is a disease caused by fungi that affects the nails whose incidence is becoming increasingly frequent. The present study aimed the evaluation of the antifungal activity of essential oils from clove (Syzygium aromaticum), Chinese cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and basil (Ocimum basilicum), against the most prevalent dermatophytes implicated in onychomycosis: Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. The chemical composition of the oils was determined by GC-MS. The volatile oil of clove and Chinese cinnamon and basil presented, respectively, the phenylpropanoids eugenol (80.2%), E-cinnamaldehyde (99.4%) and methyl chavicol (68.81%) as the main components. The volatile oil of rosemary exhibited 1,8-cineole and camphor as the major compounds, representing 47% and 15% of the total content, respectively. The results obtained in broth microdilution tests indicate that basil oil presented the best antifungal potential against the tested strains of Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes at concentrations that ranged from 8 mg/mL to 2 mg/mL. These findings point to the potential prospecting of Ocimum basilicum essential oil as a promising source of natural antimycotics to be subjected for further investigations.
Photodegradation is the process by which a chemical substance is broken down through exposure to light, typically ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This process is significant in environmental chemistry, where sunlight can degrade pollutants and materials, influencing their persistence and toxicity. Bilastine is a novel non-sedating histamine H1-receptor antagonist developed for the treatment of allergic rhino conjunctivitis and urticaria. The literature presents some studies on the quantitative determination of bilastine by high-performance liquid chromatography in pharmaceutical forms and biological fluids, however, no data on the photodegradation kinetics of this drug are described. Therefore, the objective of the study was to determine the photodegradation kinetics of the drug bilastine in coated tablets using a liquid chromatography method previously developed and validated by the same research group (unplished data). The study was carried out with methanolic solution containing 100.0 mg mL-1 of bilastine drug product exposed to UV-C radiation (254 nm). The irradiation of the samples was done at pre-established times: 0, 15, 30, 60, 120 and 180 minutes. The chromatographic separation was performed in a Shim-pack® RP-18 column; the mobile phase comprising a mixture of 0.3% triethylamine (pH adjusted to 6.0 with 20% formic acid) and acetonitrile (66:34, v/v) at a flow-rate of 1.0 mL min-1 with isocratic elution. The temperature was set at 25 °C in the column oven. Bilastine was determined by UV detection at 207 nm using photodiode-array. The results demonstrated that the photodegradation kinetics of bilastine in methanolic solution follows the first order of reaction, with a t90% of 27.11 minutes and degradation rate constant (k) of 0.0007 min-1.
Tinidazole (TIN), an amoebicide and giardicide, does not present microbiological methods in official compendia for evaluating the potency of final products. The objective of this work is to develop and validate an effective, lean and eco-efficient microbiological turbidimetric method by National Environmental Method Index (NEMI) and Eco-Scale Assessment (ESA) to evaluate the potency of TIN-based tablets. The microbiological method was performed using Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 at 1 % in BHI broth, TIN solution in purified water and ethanol (90:10, v/v) at concentrations of 40, 60 and 90 μg mL-1, shaker at 80 rpm, 4 hours of incubation, quartz cuvette and 530 nm. The method was linear from 40 to 90 μg mL-1 with a correlation coefficient of 0.9991, selective, precise (RSD < 4 %), accurate with 99.65 % recovery and robust to changes in culture medium volume, culture medium brand, inoculum percentage and shaker rotation speed. The potency of TIN tablets was 98.50 %. The greenness of the method was evaluated and NEMI presented 3 green quadrants and the ESA score was 93, showing an excellent green analysis option. This work presents a lean and eco-efficient proposal for evaluating the potency of TIN tablets for chemical-pharmaceutical laboratories around the world.
Pregabalin (PGB) is a synthetic drug used for the treatment of central nervous system disorders and neuropathic pain. PGB is metabolized to N-Methyl pregabalin while the rest is excreted virtually unchanged in the urine. Numerous analytical techniques for measuring pregabalin have been documented. This study aimed to validate a simple, sensitive, and accurate method for PGB quantification in human urine using the HPLC technique with 1-Fluoro-2, 4-dinitrobenzene used as a derivatizing agent. One hundred and twenty urine samples were analyzed by a reversed-phase (C18) column and a mixture of acetonitrile and 50 mM KH2PO4 (pH 2.5) (60:40, v/v) as mobile phase and the flow rate was 1 ml/min and the UV detector wavelength was set to 360nm. The procedure was linear within the 10-1000 μg/ml range of PGB in urine (r > 0.99). Intraday and interday RSD precision values fell between 2.8% and 5.9%. 2.5 and 1.5 μg/ml, respectively, were determined to be the method's limits of quantification and detection. The recovery (90.8%) and statistical characteristics show that the suggested method has excellent accuracy and precision. The method is accurate, precise, reproducible, and specific, and it can be applied to regular examinations of pregabalin in urine samples.
The aim of this work was to evaluate the skin distributions of two drugs with different logarithm of the distribution coefficient (Log D) values. Melatonin (MEL; Log D 1.74) and benzophenone-3 (BZA-3; Log D 3.88) lipid core nanocapsules (LNCs) were prepared with poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL) of different molar weights (14,000 g mol-1 and 80,000 g mol-1), capric/caprylic triglyceride, sorbitan monostearate and polysorbate 80, and nanoemulsions (NE) were similarly prepared without polymer. In vitro release experiments combined with in vitro percutaneous penetration/permeation data demonstrated that the localization of the substance in the nanoparticles (determined by Log D) is crucial for understanding their diffusion behavior. The results demonstrated that substances of moderate lipophilicity, such as MEL, are affected by the molar mass of the polymer since the use of 80,000 g mol-1 PCL in the particle composition (LNC80MEL) guaranteed a greater encapsulation efficiency (EE%) (55%). On the other hand, the percutaneous distribution profile of substances with high lipophilicity, such as BZA-3, is not influenced by the molar mass of the polymer since for all formulations containing BZA-3, the EE% was approximately 99%. However, the presence of a polymer in the nanocapsule (LNC) tends to promote greater retention of the substance at the stratum corneum level, while its absence (NE) allows penetration of the particle through the skin layers and drives a higher concentration of BZA-3 into the dermis.
