This mixed-methods study examined the effectiveness of AI-generated instructional videos (AIVs) on content comprehension, engagement, and reflective practice. Conducted with 117 undergraduate students in an Ecuadorian English-as-a-foreign-language teacher education program, the study compared AIV-supported instruction with traditional materials in two courses: Contrastive Grammar and Research Methods. Quantitative data from tests, surveys, and reflection scores were complemented by qualitative analysis of student reflections and classroom artifacts. Results showed that students using AIVs outperformed the control group in Contrastive Grammar, while gains in Research Methods were positive but not statistically significant. Students reported high perceived usefulness and moderate to high engagement, despite some challenges in video creation. Moreover, watching AIVs helped students clarify and reinforce content, while creating videos fostered deeper understanding, creativity, and digital skills. Reflection quality strongly correlated with academic achievement in Research Methods but not in Contrastive Grammar.
This study examines the relationship between formative assessment (FA) and L2 writing anxiety (WA) by investigating the mediating roles of writing self-concept (WSC) and learning attitudes in Automated Writing Evaluation (AWE)-supported English as Foreign Language (EFL) writing (LAiW). A mixed-methods approach combined covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) on survey data from 366 Chinese university students and semi-structured interviews with eight participants. The quantitative findings showed that FA did not exert a direct effect on WA, instead demonstrating a fully mediated relationship. FA significantly predicted improvements in both WSC and LAiW, which subsequently exerted significant negative effects on WA. The qualitative findings triangulated these results, revealing that although AWE enhances metacognitive engagement and immediate linguistic scaffolding, teacher mediation remains essential for higher-order writing concerns and emotional support. The study proposes an affective-cognitive framework for AWE-integrated EFL FA and highlights the need for coordinated AI-teacher collaboration.
This study explores the effectiveness of video captions versus generative artificial intelligence (GAI) mind mapping for enhancing English as a second language (L2) listening skills among 79 EFL undergraduates in Macau. Using TED-Ed videos, the study employed pre-/post-tests and thematic analysis of reflective journals. Results indicated that the GAI mind mapping group significantly outperformed the captions group, demonstrating greater improvements in listening skills, efficacy, and strategy development. In contrast, the captions group experienced cognitive overload and limited engagement. This research offers valuable insights for educators seeking to optimise L2 listening instruction in EMI settings.
This mixed-methods, quasi-experimental pilot study examined free nonpremium AI-conversational apps' impact on Omani English-as-a-foreign-language learners' speaking proficiency and confidence. Over 16 weeks, 140 learners completed speaking assessments and interviews, with experimental groups using AI apps. Results showed significant gains in fluency and pronunciation among advanced learners improved in pronunciation (F = 5.169, p = .026), while lexical and grammatical skills had minimal change. Anxiety decreased from M = 3.70 to M = 3.09, with analysis showing increased confidence and engagement. Intermediate learners reported reduced fear and improved speech, while advanced learners noted enhanced self-regulated learning aligned with the AI-self-regulated speaking development model. Despite limitations in accent recognition and feedback, learners valued AI tools as supplements to instruction. The study concluded that AI apps could support oral proficiency when integrated with instruction and practice.
This research investigated how interactive digital tools influence the level of engagement and academic outcomes of kindergarten children in Jordan. A mixed-method approach was utilized, using a questionnaire and interviews with kindergarten teachers to investigate the relationship between the interactive digital tools used and children's engagement and academic outcomes. The study revealed that interactive digital tools accounted for 17.7% of the variance in children's classroom engagement and 13.9% of the variance in academic outcomes. The responses of five kindergarten teachers showed that their experiences using interactive digital tools were generally positive, although the degree of application and the types of tools used varied. Most stated that these tools helped make the educational process more engaging and smoother. Based on the regression analysis results, it was determined that digital tools significantly influence differences in engagement and performance.
This study examines the relationship between formative assessment (FA) and L2 writing anxiety (WA) by investigating the mediating roles of writing self-concept (WSC) and learning attitudes in Automated Writing Evaluation (AWE)-supported English as Foreign Language (EFL) writing (LAiW). A mixed-methods approach combined covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) on survey data from 366 Chinese university students and semi-structured interviews with eight participants. The quantitative findings showed that FA did not exert a direct effect on WA, instead demonstrating a fully mediated relationship. FA significantly predicted improvements in both WSC and LAiW, which subsequently exerted significant negative effects on WA. The qualitative findings triangulated these results, revealing that although AWE enhances metacognitive engagement and immediate linguistic scaffolding, teacher mediation remains essential for higher-order writing concerns and emotional support. The study proposes an affective-cognitive framework for AWE-integrated EFL FA and highlights the need for coordinated AI-teacher collaboration.
This paper attempted to measure the impact of using 3D holograms within an educational environment on the pronunciation skills and the engagement level of the language learners. Therefore, through a quasi-experimental study, 60 Omani English as a foreign language (EFL) learners with pre-intermediate English proficiency level were divided into a control (face-to-face training) and an experimental group (3D Hologram-enhanced learning) with an equal number of 30 students in each group. To measure the effect of the treatment within a six-week treatment period, pronunciation pretests, posttests, and delayed posttests were conducted for both groups, along with an engagement questionnaire, which was initially developed by Quiben et al. within the experimental group. The results of the study confirmed initial progress of both groups in the pronunciation posttest, but the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group (p < .001). In the delayed posttest, while the control group showed a decline from the pretest, the experimental group sustained significant progress (p < .001). The analysis of the engagement questionnaire revealed an increase in the engagement level of students due to the use of 3D holograms. The results are helpful for teachers, students, and the institutions.
This research investigated how interactive digital tools influence the level of engagement and academic outcomes of kindergarten children in Jordan. A mixed-method approach was utilized, using a questionnaire and interviews with kindergarten teachers to investigate the relationship between the interactive digital tools used and children’s engagement and academic outcomes. The study revealed that interactive digital tools accounted for 17.7% of the variance in children’s classroom engagement and 13.9% of the variance in academic outcomes. The responses of five kindergarten teachers showed that their experiences using interactive digital tools were generally positive, although the degree of application and the types of tools used varied. Most stated that these tools helped make the educational process more engaging and smoother. Based on the regression analysis results, it was determined that digital tools significantly influence differences in engagement and performance.
Incidental vocabulary learning (IVL) is essential for long-term retention. Techniques like multiple-choice glossing and digital game-based vocabulary learning (DGBVL) support IVL through contextual inferencing. However, combining multiple-choice glossing with DGBVL may lead to cognitive overload and learning hindrance. In this study, grounded in cognitive load theory (CLT), the authors explored whether context optimization consistent with CLT affects IVL and retention. They randomly placed 70 A2-level English as a foreign language learners into experimental (with cognitive load optimization of context) and control groups (without this optimization). Unaware of upcoming posttests, both groups completed a DGBVL activity for learning 10 target pseudo-words. In immediate and delayed posttests, the experimental group outperformed the control group, particularly in productive and receptive knowledge gains of meaning and orthography, with minor forgetting. Pedagogically, optimizing the context of DGBVL activities consistent with CLT—by reducing element interactivity and search demand—may promote large, more stable IVL gains.
This paper attempted to measure the impact of using 3D holograms within an educational environment on the pronunciation skills and the engagement level of the language learners. Therefore, through a quasi-experimental study, 60 Omani English as a foreign language (EFL) learners with pre-intermediate English proficiency level were divided into a control (face-to-face training) and an experimental group (3D Hologram-enhanced learning) with an equal number of 30 students in each group. To measure the effect of the treatment within a six-week treatment period, pronunciation pretests, posttests, and delayed posttests were conducted for both groups, along with an engagement questionnaire, which was initially developed by Quiben et al. within the experimental group. The results of the study confirmed initial progress of both groups in the pronunciation posttest, but the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group (p < .001). In the delayed posttest, while the control group showed a decline from the pretest, the experimental group sustained significant progress (p < .001). The analysis of the engagement questionnaire revealed an increase in the engagement level of students due to the use of 3D holograms. The results are helpful for teachers, students, and the institutions.
This study compares learners’ agency, perceptions, and macro/micro-listening skills in different aural training modalities: mobile-assisted language learning and intelligent mobile-assisted language learning including adaptive artificial intelligence-generated listening material/activities. From a pool of 389 English as a foreign language (EFL) sophomores, 195 students participated. Within a mixed-methods study design, the listening tests scores were statistically analyzed using linear mixed effects models and linear regression tests. While immediate personalized and adaptive auditory exposure through intelligent mobile-assisted listening has a stronger positive effect on macro-listening processes, mobile-assisted listening has a comparable positive effect on the development of micro-listening skills. This suggests that the development of macro-listening processes is not simply a linear accumulation of micro-listening skills. Moreover, the inductive thematic qualitative data from the open-ended perceptions survey reveal new perspectives on how EFL learners practice agency employing their strategic competence to overcome the limitations of current artificial intelligence uses in EFL listening development.
This study examines pronunciation assessment in English as a Foreign Language, comparing holistic and atomistic evaluations by human raters—native and non-native speakers—and the artificial intelligence (AI) tool ELSA Speak. Over six months, university students in English as a Foreign Language were assessed across four phases. Two questions guided the research: How do ELSA Speak’s holistic scores align with human judgments? How do atomistic evaluations of phonological errors differ between AI and humans? This study used a mixed-methods approach to analyze quantitative scores and qualitative error patterns. Findings revealed asymmetry: ELSA Speak consistently tracked progress, while human ratings were less stable and time sensitive. AI-powered tools focused on segmental features, whereas humans, especially natives, captured suprasegmental aspects. Rather than replacement, the study advocates integration—combining AI’s diagnostic precision with human perceptual depth. A hybrid model emerges as the most pedagogically sound approach in the evolving landscape of language assessment.
The integration of artificial intelligence into language education occurs within a complex ecosystem of legal frameworks, emotional responses, institutional policies, and assessment practices. This paper moves beyond pedagogical considerations to examine three interconnected areas: first, legal issues including intellectual property, liability, misrepresentation, and privacy concerns raised by processing learner data; second, affective dimensions including technostress, precarity, digital wellbeing, and the impact of working alongside systems that appear to surpass human capabilities; third, the policy environment, arguing that AI must be addressed through institutional dialogue, coherent guidelines, and curriculum integration. Assessment is also addressed, arguing for a shift from product-focused to process-inclusive approaches. Drawing on the Gartner Hype Cycle, the paper argues that the transition from technology-focused enthusiasm to productive integration is neither automatic nor inevitable, and that attending to ecosystem-level concerns is essential for sustainable AI adoption.
This study explores the effectiveness of video captions versus generative artificial intelligence (GAI) mind mapping for enhancing English as a second language (L2) listening skills among 79 EFL undergraduates in Macau. Using TED-Ed videos, the study employed pre-/post-tests and thematic analysis of reflective journals. Results indicated that the GAI mind mapping group significantly outperformed the captions group, demonstrating greater improvements in listening skills, efficacy, and strategy development. In contrast, the captions group experienced cognitive overload and limited engagement. This research offers valuable insights for educators seeking to optimise L2 listening instruction in EMI settings.
Previous research into source-based writing by undergraduate post-novice L2 writers mainly focused on source integration techniques and perceived challenges. This study examined the effects of incorporating VR technology in practicing multi-modal source-based writing, using a pre-experimental study with 12 university student participants. Survey and interview results showed that most students regarded 2D and 3D VR as helpful for enhancing their writing motivation and learning effectiveness, with 3D VR regarded as more helpful; long-term benefits on source engagement, selection, and categorization were perceived, along with drawbacks of limited applicability to specialist content. Text analysis of the two tests revealed that nearly 70% of students improved competence in selecting relevant sources, accurately presenting source information, and summarizing source information. However, VR seemed to have little impact on developing students' ability to analyze source information.
This study proposes research based on the stimulus-organism-response model to examine determinants affecting English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' continuance intention of artificial intelligence (AI)-powered chatbots and learning outcomes, and to test whether usage frequency can moderate path relationships within the research model. Sample data for this study were collected from learners who had experience with using AI-powered chatbots to learn English in Taiwan, and 395 usable questionnaires were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results demonstrate that EFL learners' perceived anthropomorphism and perceived intelligence of AI-powered chatbots positively influenced the perceived warmth and perceived competence elicited by the chatbots, which together encouraged their continuance intention of using AI-powered chatbots, and in turn improved their learning outcomes. Further, this study showed that EFL learners' usage frequency of using AI-powered chatbots partially and significantly moderated path relationships in the research model.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the implementation of artificial intelligence and multiple intelligences (MI) in project-based learning (PBL) to improve English language proficiency of Chinese undergraduates. A quasi-experimental design was used, with students divided into experimental and control groups that consisted of 30 students each. The PBL treatment was tailored to each individual MI throughout 16 weeks as opposed to traditional learning in controls. Opposite to the initial hypotheses, quantitative data in the form of pre-post tests and questionnaires showed that significant results in English proficiency, motivation, and engagement were accomplished in the treatment condition. The combination of artificial intelligence and MI in PBL has a significantly greater impact in language learning results compared to the control group. It offered sound evidence to confirm the effectiveness of technology-enabled personalized PBL as a new emerging English language teaching approach in English language learning.
Strategic prompt engineering has emerged as a crucial factor in maximizing the academic potential of AI-generated content in empowering English as a foreign language (EFL) context. This study explored the effectiveness of artificial intelligence (AI) tools guided by prompt design in enhancing language teaching. Data for the quantitative analysis was gathered from 77 EFL teachers across institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia using a structured questionnaire. The responses were analyzed using IBM’s Statistical Package for Social Sciences software. Additionally, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 participants using NVivo 15 to obtain qualitative insights. Findings indicated that AI-generated content is viewed as a valuable tool; its efficacy is largely dependent on the teacher’s ability to craft and refine prompts that align with specific learning aims. Participants reported an increased engagement, particularly in lesson customization and content variety, and emphasized the need for targeted training in prompt engineering. The research highlighted the need for professional development in prompt design and presented practical implications for integrating AI prompt engineering into EFL instruction.
This study proposes research based on the stimulus-organism-response model to examine determinants affecting English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ continuance intention of artificial intelligence (AI)-powered chatbots and learning outcomes, and to test whether usage frequency can moderate path relationships within the research model. Sample data for this study were collected from learners who had experience with using AI-powered chatbots to learn English in Taiwan, and 395 usable questionnaires were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results demonstrate that EFL learners’ perceived anthropomorphism and perceived intelligence of AI-powered chatbots positively influenced the perceived warmth and perceived competence elicited by the chatbots, which together encouraged their continuance intention of using AI-powered chatbots, and in turn improved their learning outcomes. Further, this study showed that EFL learners’ usage frequency of using AI-powered chatbots partially and significantly moderated path relationships in the research model.
The widespread use of social media, particularly among young people, has expanded its potential for educational opportunities and provided new ways to enhance learning. Nevertheless, the integration of TikTok into English learning still raises questions about its effectiveness and pedagogical implications. This quasi-experimental study investigates the benefits of this social network in enhancing creativity, engagement, digital literacy, and practical English application, while also exploring challenges such as linguistic accuracy, distractions, privacy concerns, and accessibility. The study sample consisted of 42 English as a foreign language pre-service teachers. Data were collected via a structured questionnaire, a rubric used to evaluate participants’ TikTok videos created, and a focus group. The findings indicate that TikTok provides more benefits than challenges. Overall, the platform offers a viable learning environment that enhances learner motivation and facilitates interactive English learning, demonstrating that its limitations can be mitigated through thoughtful and well-planned strategies.
