Once the multimodal set of images is acquired and registered, image segmentation can be employed to discriminate phases, regions or objects of interest.Due to the nature of this problem, multidimensional pattern recognition techniques arise as potential methods for image segmentation.Then, after segmentation, one is able to measure size, shape, intensity, www.intechopen.comScanning Electron Microscopy 314 and position parameters, leading to the possibility of automatic characterization of microstructural features.The present chapter presents a multimodal methodology that combines images obtained by reflected light microscopy (RLM) and SEM.The so-called RLM-SEM co-site microscopy (Gomes & Paciornik, 2008a, 2008b) was developed to solve some ore microscopy problems that cannot be solved by either RLM or SEM. Ore microscopyOre microscopy is an essential tool for ore characterization.It was generally employed in its various modalities (stereoscopic, transmitted and reflected light, SEM, etc.) for mineral identification and quantification, and in the determination of mineral texture and liberation analysis.In certain conditions, ore microscopy is the single approach to access this kind of information.In the mining industry, it is extensively used to provide parameters to the Geometallurgy procedures for exploration, production planning, and processing plant design and optimization purposes.Transmitted and reflected light microscopy, respectively for transparent and opaque minerals, are probably the most traditional techniques of mineralogical identification.During the last two centuries, diverse analytical methods based on various properties of minerals were developed and refined.Referring to reflected light microscopy, it is worth to mention properties such as reflectivity, colour, reflection pleochroism, internal reflections, hardness, preferential polishing, chemical reactivity, crystalline habit, and crystalline texture, among others.There are some classical text-books that cover both theoretical and practical aspects of ore microscopy such as Galopin & Henry (1972), Gribble & Hall (1992), Criddle &Stanley (1993), andCraig &Vaughan (1994).
Aluminium has been acquiring increasing significance for the past few decades due to its excellent properties and diversified range of applications. Aluminium has been recognized as one of the best candidate materials for various applications by different sectors such as automotive, construction, aerospace, etc. The increasing demand for aluminium-based products and further globalization of the aluminium industry have contributed significantly to the higher consumption of aluminium scrap for re-production of aluminium alloys (Mahfoud et al., 2010).
We have been developping palmtop electron probe X-ray microanalyzers (EPMA) for these several years [1][2][3][4] and succeeded to make such an instrument recently [3], and in the p r e s e n t c h a p t e r , w e d e s c r i b e h o w t o m a k e a n i n s t r u m e n t i n d e t a i l .T h e E P M A i s a n instrument to perform microanalysis (micrometer area elemental analysis) of any kinds of samples, such as metals, alloys, minerals, environmental and biological samples, by using an electron beam.Usually 10-30 keV kinetic energy electron beam is focused less than 1 µm in order to irradiate a sample, and consequently to excite characteristic X-rays such as Kα (2p → 1s) or Lα (3d → 2p) lines.From the energy and intensity of the characteristic X-ray lines, the kind (qualitative analysis) and concentration (quantitative analysis) of the elements in the specimen can be analyzed.Commercially available EPMA instruments are usually large (need a room of at least 3 m × 5 m to install) and expensive instruments (a few 10 5 USD).The palmtop EPMA we describe in the present chapter has features as follows and different from the conventional EPMA.1. Small size.The size of the main part (sample holder, X-ray emission part, and the electron gun) is palmtop size.Typically less than 3 cm diameter and 5 cm length (Fig. 1), but can be smaller than this size.The limitation of the size is due to the high voltage discharge distance.2. Electric battery driven.The electron gun is driven by two 1.5 V electric D-batteries (Fig.2), i.e. 3 V is enough for high energy (>10 keV) electron beam in order to excite characteristic X-rays.3. The X-ray detector is Amptek Si-PIN detector (Fig. 3).Thus the size of the detector is also small.We use analog type X-ray detector amplifier.The size of the detector preamplifier is typically around 7 cm × 4 cm × 3 cm.The temperature control of the detector unit and bias power supply from the Amptek Co. is needed (Fig. 3).Thus we need power supply for the Si-PIN controller to cool down the detector and bias voltage.However usually low voltage (5-12 V) DC is enough.4. The pulse height analyzer (PHA) commercially available is not used, but we use a musician's amplifier and Windows computer as an alternative to the commercially available PHA [5][6][7][8].This part is usually called DSP (digital signal processor).Usually a DSP is an expensive device which costs between 5000 and 10000 USD.However the musician's amplifier (Fig. 4) is typically less than 500 USD.www.intechopen.
Leaded free-machining steel is used in production industry. However the use of the leaded free-machining steel is limited from an environmental problem. So sulfurized free-machining steel, not include lead, has been researched widely. In order to improve the machining performance of the sulfurized free-machining steel, it is necessary to find out the behavior of inclusion. The experiment was carried out to find out the mechanism of the surfurized inclusion on the machinability, using some kinds of materials which were changed the size of the inclusion. In orthogonal cutting, the deformation behaviors of the sulfurized inclusion in the work materials were observed in the vicinity of tool face. Cutting forces were also measured and finished surfaces were observed. Besides, low speed orthogonal cutting in Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) which was mounted a small cutting device was carried out in order to observe the deformation behavior more microscopically. As a result, it is clear that some inclusions creates voids around them and some broke to several pieces depending on their conditions. Moreover, in order to investigate the formation and growth of BUE, a quick stop experiment was done during turning. As a result, it is clear that the larger inclusions can reduce the formation of BUE.
Guggenheim and Martin (1995), define the clay as a naturally occurring aluminum silicate composed dominantly of fine-grained minerals. Several other definitions and classifications based on the grain size, pore size, sedimentation, lattice, and other properties can be found in the literature. The attention here is, however, not related to these definitions instead it is about “how to calculate reservoir clay volume using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) data“.
A reliable bond to dental hard tissues and materials has always been one of the most significant contributions for restorative dentistry (Leinfelder, 2001). A durable and stable bond between resins and dental hard tissues and restorative materials which has to integrate all parts of the system into one coherent structure is fundamental for the long-term retention and clinical success of the restorations. However, micromechanical attachment is one of the key mechanisms for a reliable adhesion to dental hard tissues and restorative materials (Matinlinna & Vallitu, 2007; Van Noort, 2002b; Fabienelli, et al., 2010). Advances in adhesive dentistry have resulted in the recent introduction of modern surface conditioning methods in order to achieve high bond strengths through increased surface roughness of both dental hard tissues and the restorative materials (Matinlinna & Vallitu, 2007; Van Noort, 2002b).
The earliest mention of the significance of porosity in the performance of activated carbons is generally attributed to the French chemist Antoine-Alexandre-Brutus Bussy who in a 1822 publication suggested that porosity was important to the adsorptive properties of activated carbons. Since then a lot of research has gone into elucidating the nature of porosity of activated carbons, its development and measurement. In particular, a great deal of research has been spent on understanding factors that affect the development of porosity and how to model the porosity in terms of these factors. Similarly, much effort has gone into identifying accurate methods and procedures for characterizing activated carbons in general and particularly its pore structure. The continued interest in these research is because of the continued use and importance of activated carbons in industry and an unrelenting pursuit to improve on its performance. Characterization of porosity is often done indirectly by measurement of secondary data from which the requisite pore parameters are estimated. But direct methods also exist for characterizing the pore structure of activated carbons. Methods such as optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), in view of their ability to directly view the micro-structure of activated carbons have demonstrated enormous potential for use in the study and characterization of activated carbons [ Manocha et al., 2010; Lazslo et al., 2009; Achaw & Afrane, 2008]. However, this latter approach has only been applied in a very limited capacity in the past. Rather, industry and researchers alike continue to rely on the indirect methods to determine and quantify porosity in activated carbons. The indirect methods calculate activated carbon characteristics from measurement of other parameters that are generally thought to relate to the properties of interest. Adsorption measurements and related mathematical models wherein information regarding the pore structure of an activated carbon is determined are the most commonly used amongst the indirect methods. Porosity measurements using this approach extracts such pore characteristics as pore volume, surface area, pore size distribution and average pore diameter based on mathematical models of the adsorption process, information on the adsorbate and an adsorption isotherm. Besides adsorption measurements, several other indirect methods also exist to estimate the pore characteristics of activated carbons. Among these are immersion calorimetry, small angle scattering of X-rays (SAXS), small angle scattering of neutrons (SANS), and mercury porosimetry[Rigby & Edler, 2002; Stoeckli et al, 2002; Daley et. al., 1996].
The problem of non-biodegradable plastic waste remains a challenge due to its negative environmental impact. In this sense, poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) and poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL) have been receiving much attention lately due to their biodegradability in human body as well as in the soil, biocompatibility, environmentally friendly characteristics and non-toxicity (Tsuji & Ikada, 1996; Kammer & Kummerlowe, 1994; Dell’Erba et al., 2001; Yoshii et al., 2000; Zhang et al., 2005). The controlled degradation of polymers is sometimes desired for biomedical applications and environmental purposes (Michler, 2008).
scale operations, especially for emerging membrane technologies such as forward osmosis and membrane distillation.
The imaging and the microanalysis of hydrated and insulating materials using electron beam probe methods (Conventional SEM, Auger Electron Microscopy,...) are very limited by the necessity to keep the sample under high vacuum and the presence of the charge effect. In this case the sample must be coated except when the experiment is performed at very low energy in order to avoid the charge phenomenon. Studies of vegetable and biological samples are almost impossible without degradation. In Conventional SEM (Pressure = 10-5 mbar in the specimen chamber) image quality and microanalysis results are strongly related to the size of the electron beam, the accelerating voltage and the nature of the sample. A large description of different aspects on SEM/EDS exists in the literature (Newbury et al, 1986; Goldstein et al, 1992).
The widespread use of medical devices has caused a great advance in the management of many diseases. Indwelling medical devices are being increasingly used for the treatment of functional deficits in numerous medical fields. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) represent the most commonly acquired bacterial infection. The risk of developing a urinary tract infection increases significantly with the use of indwelling devices such as catheters and urethral stents/sphincters. Although these catheters are valuable, they also have complications, the major complications are: encrustation, stone formation and biofilm formation. Microbial biofilms may pose a public health problem for persons requiring catheterization as the microorganisms in biofilms are difficult or impossible to be treated by antimicrobial agents.
In 1931 Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska at the university of Berlin built the first electron microscope that use accelerated electrons as a source instead of light source. However, the first scanning electron microscope (SEM) was built in 1938 due to the difficulties of scanning the electrons through the sample. Electron microscope is working exactly the same as the optical microscope expects it use a focused accelerated electron beam [1].
Electron Back Scattering Diffraction (EBSD) is a technique based on the analysis of the Kikuchi pattern by the excitation of the electron beam on the surface of the sample in a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The crystal structure, orientation and correlative information can be acquired by the technique. EBSD has a unique advantage in the determination of the crystal orientation and microstructure compared with the traditional analysis methods. It can observe the grain boundary types, misorientations, and the distribution of them, and the statistical measurement and quantitative analysis also can be carried out. Therefore, the quantitative relationship between grain boundary structure, orientation, texture and material properties can be established. Consequently, it has been a very important experimental technique in materials science and engineering.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has been widely used in environmental microbiology to characterize the surface structure of biomaterials and to measure cell attachment and changes in morphology of bacteria. Moreover, SEM is useful for defining the number and distribution of microorganisms that adhere to surfaces. Traditionally, inability to provide phylogenetic or genetic information about microorganisms has been one limitation of SEM in environmental microbiology.
Titanium and its alloys have been used broadly and successfully for numerous applications such as sport equipment [1], aerospace industry [2], marine application [3], medical applications [4] because of its optimum mechanical properties, outstanding corrosion resistance and bio-inert due to the presence of a thin layer of titanium oxide which a naturally formed onto the titanium surface [5-6]. This layer mainly consists of titanium dioxide or titania. Properties of oxide films covering titanium implant surfaces are a key role for a successful osseointegration [7-8], wear and corrosion resistance [9]. Moreover, titania has a large number of potentials in water photoelectrolysis and photocatalysis [10], sensors [11], wastewater remediation [12], automotive industry [13], industrial applications [14] and micro-optoelectronic applications [15]. However, there are some disadvantages of the native titanium oxide which has poor mechanical properties and easily fractured under small scale of fretting and wears conditions [16]. Therefore, many surface modification treatments for examples anodisation (anodic oxidation), cathodic electrodeposition and sol-gel reactions [17-22] have been studied in order to improve the performance of titanium. Moreover, surface properties such as topography, chemical composition and hydrophilicity have an effect on the mechanical stability of the implant-tissue interface. Various surface modification methods of titanium have been shown to improve interfacial interactions at the bone-implant interface and their clinical performance. Moreover, the biological performance of implantable titanium depends crucially on their surface topography in the micrometre (structures larger than 1 micron) and nanometre (structures smaller than 1 micron) range. Surface microand nano-topography can reduced inflammatory and guide direct osteoblast responses by altering adhesion, recruitment, movement, morphology, apoptosis and gene expression, and subsequently protein production [23-25]. An anodisation is a simple and an inexpensive technique to prepare thin film titania on titanium surface in different conditions and electrolytes such as acidic, basic, neutral, organic and inorganic which affect surface architecture and chemical composition [26-27]. Anodised oxide layer has thickness in the range of 20 to 180 nm which is thicker than a naturally formed oxide [28]. Moreover, this technique is presently used to achieve microand nano-topography surfaces. An anodisation is an electrolytic etching for coating the surface of a metal with an oxide layer which changes the microscopic texture of the surface and the crystal structure of the metal
For most of the history of microbiology, microorganisms have primarily been characterized as planktonic, freely suspended cells and described on the basis of their growth characteristics in nutritionally rich culture media. The discovery of microorganisms, 1684, is usually ascribed to Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, who was the first person to publish microscopic observations of bacteria. The direct quantitative recovery techniques showed unequivocally that more than 99.9% of the bacteria grow in biofilms on a wide variety of surfaces. Although the most common mode of growth for microorganisms on earth is in surface associated communities (Stoodley et al., 2002; Sutherland, 2001), the first reported findings of microorganisms “attached in layers” were not made until the 1940s. During the 1960s and 70s the research on “microbial slimes” accelerated but the term “biofilm” was not unanimous formulated until 1984 (Bryers, 2000). Biofilm has three-dimensional (3D) structured, heterogeneous community of microbial cells enclosed in an exopolysaccharide matrix (also called glycocalyx) that are irreversibly attached to an inert or living surface. As establish, biofilm formation has a serious implications in public health and medicine. In the case of human health, a number of microbial infections are associated with surface colonization not only on live surfaces (sinusitis, pulmonary infection in cystic fibrosis patients, periodontitis, etc. (Hall-Stoodley et al., 2004) but also on medical implants (contact lenses, dental implants, intravascular catheters, urinary stents) etc. (Donlan, 2001; Hall-Stoodley et al., 2004). Biofilms affect heat exchangers, filters, etc. because they induce biocorrosion and biofouling, producing damages on metallic surfaces and the efficiency loss in industrial set-up (Dunne, 2002; Garret et al., 2008). However,biofilms have also useful applications in bioremediation (Vidali, 2001) of different environments (microorganisms degrade and convert pollutants into less toxic forms) and biolixiviation (bacteria can efficiently dissolve minerals used in industry, to obtain copper and gold).
