Once the multimodal set of images is acquired and registered, image segmentation can be employed to discriminate phases, regions or objects of interest.Due to the nature of this problem, multidimensional pattern recognition techniques arise as potential methods for image segmentation.Then, after segmentation, one is able to measure size, shape, intensity, www.intechopen.comScanning Electron Microscopy 314 and position parameters, leading to the possibility of automatic characterization of microstructural features.The present chapter presents a multimodal methodology that combines images obtained by reflected light microscopy (RLM) and SEM.The so-called RLM-SEM co-site microscopy (Gomes & Paciornik, 2008a, 2008b) was developed to solve some ore microscopy problems that cannot be solved by either RLM or SEM. Ore microscopyOre microscopy is an essential tool for ore characterization.It was generally employed in its various modalities (stereoscopic, transmitted and reflected light, SEM, etc.) for mineral identification and quantification, and in the determination of mineral texture and liberation analysis.In certain conditions, ore microscopy is the single approach to access this kind of information.In the mining industry, it is extensively used to provide parameters to the Geometallurgy procedures for exploration, production planning, and processing plant design and optimization purposes.Transmitted and reflected light microscopy, respectively for transparent and opaque minerals, are probably the most traditional techniques of mineralogical identification.During the last two centuries, diverse analytical methods based on various properties of minerals were developed and refined.Referring to reflected light microscopy, it is worth to mention properties such as reflectivity, colour, reflection pleochroism, internal reflections, hardness, preferential polishing, chemical reactivity, crystalline habit, and crystalline texture, among others.There are some classical text-books that cover both theoretical and practical aspects of ore microscopy such as Galopin & Henry (1972), Gribble & Hall (1992), Criddle &Stanley (1993), andCraig &Vaughan (1994).
Aluminium has been acquiring increasing significance for the past few decades due to its excellent properties and diversified range of applications. Aluminium has been recognized as one of the best candidate materials for various applications by different sectors such as automotive, construction, aerospace, etc. The increasing demand for aluminium-based products and further globalization of the aluminium industry have contributed significantly to the higher consumption of aluminium scrap for re-production of aluminium alloys (Mahfoud et al., 2010).
We have been developping palmtop electron probe X-ray microanalyzers (EPMA) for these several years [1][2][3][4] and succeeded to make such an instrument recently [3], and in the p r e s e n t c h a p t e r , w e d e s c r i b e h o w t o m a k e a n i n s t r u m e n t i n d e t a i l .T h e E P M A i s a n instrument to perform microanalysis (micrometer area elemental analysis) of any kinds of samples, such as metals, alloys, minerals, environmental and biological samples, by using an electron beam.Usually 10-30 keV kinetic energy electron beam is focused less than 1 µm in order to irradiate a sample, and consequently to excite characteristic X-rays such as Kα (2p → 1s) or Lα (3d → 2p) lines.From the energy and intensity of the characteristic X-ray lines, the kind (qualitative analysis) and concentration (quantitative analysis) of the elements in the specimen can be analyzed.Commercially available EPMA instruments are usually large (need a room of at least 3 m × 5 m to install) and expensive instruments (a few 10 5 USD).The palmtop EPMA we describe in the present chapter has features as follows and different from the conventional EPMA.1. Small size.The size of the main part (sample holder, X-ray emission part, and the electron gun) is palmtop size.Typically less than 3 cm diameter and 5 cm length (Fig. 1), but can be smaller than this size.The limitation of the size is due to the high voltage discharge distance.2. Electric battery driven.The electron gun is driven by two 1.5 V electric D-batteries (Fig.2), i.e. 3 V is enough for high energy (>10 keV) electron beam in order to excite characteristic X-rays.3. The X-ray detector is Amptek Si-PIN detector (Fig. 3).Thus the size of the detector is also small.We use analog type X-ray detector amplifier.The size of the detector preamplifier is typically around 7 cm × 4 cm × 3 cm.The temperature control of the detector unit and bias power supply from the Amptek Co. is needed (Fig. 3).Thus we need power supply for the Si-PIN controller to cool down the detector and bias voltage.However usually low voltage (5-12 V) DC is enough.4. The pulse height analyzer (PHA) commercially available is not used, but we use a musician's amplifier and Windows computer as an alternative to the commercially available PHA [5][6][7][8].This part is usually called DSP (digital signal processor).Usually a DSP is an expensive device which costs between 5000 and 10000 USD.However the musician's amplifier (Fig. 4) is typically less than 500 USD.www.intechopen.
Leaded free-machining steel is used in production industry. However the use of the leaded free-machining steel is limited from an environmental problem. So sulfurized free-machining steel, not include lead, has been researched widely. In order to improve the machining performance of the sulfurized free-machining steel, it is necessary to find out the behavior of inclusion. The experiment was carried out to find out the mechanism of the surfurized inclusion on the machinability, using some kinds of materials which were changed the size of the inclusion. In orthogonal cutting, the deformation behaviors of the sulfurized inclusion in the work materials were observed in the vicinity of tool face. Cutting forces were also measured and finished surfaces were observed. Besides, low speed orthogonal cutting in Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) which was mounted a small cutting device was carried out in order to observe the deformation behavior more microscopically. As a result, it is clear that some inclusions creates voids around them and some broke to several pieces depending on their conditions. Moreover, in order to investigate the formation and growth of BUE, a quick stop experiment was done during turning. As a result, it is clear that the larger inclusions can reduce the formation of BUE.
Guggenheim and Martin (1995), define the clay as a naturally occurring aluminum silicate composed dominantly of fine-grained minerals. Several other definitions and classifications based on the grain size, pore size, sedimentation, lattice, and other properties can be found in the literature. The attention here is, however, not related to these definitions instead it is about “how to calculate reservoir clay volume using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) data“.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) can be used for far more than just obtaining images. It has a long tradition of being used to directly manipulate a sample to create various surface structures. The scanning coils within the microscope can be utilized for directing the electron beam in a controlled manner rather than simply raster across the surface as is used in imaging. By focusing the electron beam on a given area of the sample, it can be used to induce various localized changes to the surface of a material with a high degree of precision. There are several established techniques by which an electron beam can be used to create patterned structures upon a surface, the most common of which is electron beam lithography. Electron beam lithography is a multi-step process in which a sacrificial polymer layer is first deposited onto the sample that can achieve feature sizes down to ten nanometer length scales (Broers et al. 1996; Liu et al. 2002). The electron beam can also be used to locally induce or break bonds to pattern nanostructures (Mendes et al. 2004) or simply burn material away from selected areas of the sample (Egerton et al. 2004). In essentially every case, the electron beam interacts with the surface to locally alter or break chemical bonds to form patterned surface structures with very high precision.
Currently mainstream flip chip technology is based on solder bumps.These can be produced using both traditional tin-lead and new lead-free solders.However, mounting environmental concern has increased interest in electrically conductive adhesives, as they are environmentally friendly.In addition to being lead free, they can be used with substrate materials which do not withstand soldering temperatures.Thus they can be used to solve the problem caused by the high reflow temperature needed by most lead-free solders (Li & Wong, 2006).Compared to solders adhesive materials are more complex as they are polymeric materials containing conductive particles.They have several advantages which makes their use profitable.However, due to their complex structure quality of the interconnections made by these materials needs to be determined carefully to attain good reliability.There are two types of electrically conductive adhesives.In isotropic conductive adhesives (ICA) the concentration of the conductive particles is high and they conduct in all directions.On the other hand, in anisotropic conductive adhesives (ACA) the concentration of conductive particles is low and the adhesive conducts in z-direction only after the bonding process.This chapter will concentrate on ACA materials used in flip chip applications.This chapter will discuss specifically how SEM may be utilised to study the quality and failure mechanisms of ACA interconnections.www.intechopen.
The problem of non-biodegradable plastic waste remains a challenge due to its negative environmental impact. In this sense, poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) and poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL) have been receiving much attention lately due to their biodegradability in human body as well as in the soil, biocompatibility, environmentally friendly characteristics and non-toxicity (Tsuji & Ikada, 1996; Kammer & Kummerlowe, 1994; Dell’Erba et al., 2001; Yoshii et al., 2000; Zhang et al., 2005). The controlled degradation of polymers is sometimes desired for biomedical applications and environmental purposes (Michler, 2008).
The widespread use of medical devices has caused a great advance in the management of many diseases. Indwelling medical devices are being increasingly used for the treatment of functional deficits in numerous medical fields. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) represent the most commonly acquired bacterial infection. The risk of developing a urinary tract infection increases significantly with the use of indwelling devices such as catheters and urethral stents/sphincters. Although these catheters are valuable, they also have complications, the major complications are: encrustation, stone formation and biofilm formation. Microbial biofilms may pose a public health problem for persons requiring catheterization as the microorganisms in biofilms are difficult or impossible to be treated by antimicrobial agents.
A battery generally consists of three important parts namely, anode, cathode and electrolyte. The batteries further classified into primary and secondary batteries. Among the different kinds of batteries, Li-ion batteries are plays a very important role in the development of modern technologies especially in the portable electronic device industries and in heavy electrical vehicles because of its advantages such as high theoretical capacity, improved safety, lower material costs, ease of fabrication into flexible geometries, and the absence of electrolyte leakage. In the battery system different kinds of electrolytes were used for promoting the ions from anode to cathode (during charge) and cathode to anode (during discharge). For this purpose, liquid electrolyte is identified as suitable electrolytes which facilitate higher ionic conductivity (10-2 Scm-1) than other electrolyte systems. However, it has several disadvantages namely gas formation during the operation, leakage, difficult to utilise for portable applications and etc. To overcome these difficulties, many attempts were made on solid polymer electrolyte systems. The main objective of the researchers is to improve the ambient temperature ionic conductivity, mechanical stability, thermal and interfacial stability of the electrolytes. However, it is difficult task for the researchers, inorder to improve these basic requirements of the electrolytes simultaneously because the ionic conductivity and mechanical strength of a polymer electrolyte are disparate to each other, i.e., mechanical strength of the electrolyte decreases as conductivity increases.
In 1931 Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska at the university of Berlin built the first electron microscope that use accelerated electrons as a source instead of light source. However, the first scanning electron microscope (SEM) was built in 1938 due to the difficulties of scanning the electrons through the sample. Electron microscope is working exactly the same as the optical microscope expects it use a focused accelerated electron beam [1].
Electron Back Scattering Diffraction (EBSD) is a technique based on the analysis of the Kikuchi pattern by the excitation of the electron beam on the surface of the sample in a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The crystal structure, orientation and correlative information can be acquired by the technique. EBSD has a unique advantage in the determination of the crystal orientation and microstructure compared with the traditional analysis methods. It can observe the grain boundary types, misorientations, and the distribution of them, and the statistical measurement and quantitative analysis also can be carried out. Therefore, the quantitative relationship between grain boundary structure, orientation, texture and material properties can be established. Consequently, it has been a very important experimental technique in materials science and engineering.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has been widely used in environmental microbiology to characterize the surface structure of biomaterials and to measure cell attachment and changes in morphology of bacteria. Moreover, SEM is useful for defining the number and distribution of microorganisms that adhere to surfaces. Traditionally, inability to provide phylogenetic or genetic information about microorganisms has been one limitation of SEM in environmental microbiology.
The properties of clays can be significantly improved by treating with calcium-based stabilizers (or additives) such as hydrated lime (or lime), Portland cement, cement kiln dust (CKD), and class C fly ash (CFA). In the presence of water, the calcium ions released from these stabilizers reduce the thickness of double diffused layer through cation-exchange and flocculation-agglomeration reactions. This is primarily responsible for improvement in workability through reduction of adsorbed water and decrease in plasticity index. In longterm, pozzolanic reactions occur between the calcium ions of the stabilizer and the silica and alumina of the clay minerals resulting in the formation of cementitious products such as calcium-silicate-hydrates (C-S-H), calcium-aluminate-hydrates (C-A-H), and calciumaluminum-silicate-hydrates (C-A-S-H). The reaction may be written as:
The characterization of materials supports their development and in particular of superconductors, for their technological applications. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is one of these characterization techniques, whose data is used to estimate the properties, determine the shortcomings and hence improve the material. The phenomenon of superconductivity initially develops within the grain and eventually crosses over the grain boundaries, leading to the bulk. Hence SEM can be a useful tool to probe the microstructure of the superconductors and the properties related to it. Along with this the Energydispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) can tell about the chemical composition of compounds. Grain size and its connectivity can be seen through SEM and can be correlated with the corresponding properties. The superconducting materials developed for practical applications are some of the complex materials used today. These materials have large number of potential variables such as their processing conditions, composition, structure etc., whose dependence on the superconducting properties have to be analyzed critically. The characterization techniques are the tools that help to reveal and explore both the macro and microstructure of materials. It is known that the larger grains (reduction in grain boundaries) lead to increased pinning type behavior with enhanced Jc [1]. In contrast Rosko et al. [2] reported that Jc is determined by weak links and grain size has little role on it. Also, Smith et al. [3] interpreted reduction of Jc and activation of weak link type behavior with increasing grain size for YBa2Cu3O7-δ (YBCO) polycrystalline samples in terms of microcracks in large grains. The superconducting parameters are broadly divided into two categories; first, the intrinsic parameters such as penetration depth (┣), which are intrinsic to the material and are not affected by, grain size. On the other hand, values such as shielding/Meissner fraction, the interand intra-grain critical current density and diamagnetic fraction depend upon particle size of bulk superconductors. Thus SEM can be very important to probe and in understanding the superconducting phenomena.
It is a common sense that structure of material determines its function. The change of macroscopic properties of materials is caused by the changes of its microstructure. For example, a porous structure as a honeycomb would facilitate rapid water diffusion or promote a rapid water uptake during drying or cooking. On the contrary, a compact structure or fewer pores at the surface of the product can cause a slower moisture migration during drying or water penetration into the interior during rehydration or cooking. Therefore, microstructure investigation can help quantifying product changes during processing and may also improve the understanding of mechanisms and changes in quality factors, especially the changes in food texture (Aguilera & Stanley, 1999; Xiao et al., 2009). For example, the pore sizes and the number of pores can significantly influence the texture of food. Smaller number of pores and small sizes led to the dense structure. While, larger number of pores and large pore size can cause a decrease of the hardness of the product.
