Malathion is one of the most widely used organophosphate insecticides, and its environmental fate is strongly influenced by microbial transformation in the water column and sediments. This review synthesizes current knowledge of the enzymatic and metabolic pathways that govern the persistence of malathion in aquatic, sedimentary, and wastewater systems. Members of the genera Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Acinetobacter, Rhodococcus, Micrococcus, and several other commonly studied taxa produce enzymes such as carboxylesterases and hydrolases that cleave the carboxyl ester linkage. The major metabolites formed are malathion monocarboxylic acid (MMC) and malathion dicarboxylic acid (MDC), which are generally far less toxic than the parent compound and, under favorable conditions, can be further mineralized to carbon dioxide and inorganic phosphate. A parallel transformation route, oxidative desulfuration, can generate malaoxon, a metabolite substantially more toxic and persistent than malathion and therefore important to consider in environmental risk assessment. Degradation rates are typically highest at 25–35 °C and neutral to slightly alkaline pH conditions that favor hydrolytic activity. Redox conditions further influence pathway predominance: oxic environments generally favor hydrolysis and oxidative transformation, whereas anoxic environments may slow overall degradation and promote alternative reductive processes. Nutrient availability can stimulate microbial growth and enzyme expression, accelerating degradation in eutrophic waters and organic-rich sediments, whereas in oligotrophic systems, transformation is often slower. Consequently, microbial activity can reduce malathion’s environmental half-life from weeks to days in some systems, although the transient formation of toxic intermediates necessitates monitoring beyond the parent compound. Improved understanding of the microbial taxa, enzymatic machinery, and environmental drivers involved provides a stronger mechanistic framework for predicting malathion fate, refining ecological risk assessments, and informing targeted bioremediation strategies in contaminated ecosystems.
Soil salinity is a major constraint to agricultural productivity, disrupting plant growth through osmotic stress, ion toxicity, oxidative damage, and impaired cellular homeostasis. Sustainable strategies that integrate beneficial microorganisms with natural biostimulants may provide an effective approach to enhancing crop resilience under saline conditions. This study investigated the individual and synergistic effects of the root endophytic fungus Serendipita indica and humic acid (HA) on salinity tolerance in Pennisetum glaucum grown under 0, 100, and 200 mM NaCl. Plant responses were evaluated through integrated morphological, physiological, biochemical, ultrastructural, and molecular analyses. Salinity markedly impaired growth, photosynthetic performance, nutrient acquisition, metabolite accumulation, antioxidant capacity, membrane stability, and chloroplast integrity while suppressing the expression of aquaporin (PgPIP1.1 and PgTIP1.1) and salt overly sensitive (PgSOS1 and PgSOS2) genes. Both S. indica and HA alleviated these adverse effects; however, their combined application consistently produced the greatest improvement across all biological levels. The synergistic treatment enhanced root architecture, biomass accumulation, photosynthetic efficiency, osmotic adjustment, antioxidant defense, and nutrient assimilation while preserving chloroplast ultrastructure and plasma membrane integrity. Moreover, co-application markedly upregulated genes involved in water transport and ion homeostasis, indicating coordinated molecular regulation underlying enhanced salt tolerance. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the integration of S. indica with HA confers superior salinity resilience through coordinated physiological, cellular, and transcriptional reprogramming rather than individual stress mitigation mechanisms. This work provides mechanistic evidence supporting microbial-biostimulant synergy as a sustainable strategy for improving pearl millet performance in salt-affected agroecosystems.
Ecological floating beds (EFBs) represent a sustainable, nature-based solution for remediating eutrophic waters, with plant species selection being a critical determinant of treatment performance. This study assessed the remediation potential of three floating macrophytes Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, and Ipomoea aquatica under cyanobacterial bloom stress. Results demonstrated that all three species significantly reduced concentrations of dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus, with I. aquatica exhibiting the highest removal efficiencies (93.7
The dual crises arising from surging fossil-derived materials and persistent underutilization of agricultural residues demand an innovative solution for a sustainable future. In this context, fungal mycelium-based biofabrication has garnered significant global attention, as it enables the conversion of agricultural waste into functional agro-mycelial-derived biocomposite (AMB). AMB offers a combination of favourable thermal, acoustic, and mechanical properties, making it an attractive alternative for applications across multiple industrial sectors. However, the widespread adoption of AMB is limited by several technical constraints and social acceptance issues. Therefore, to address these gaps, this review aims to provide a systematic overview of recent advances in fabrication technologies, performance optimization, and sustainability assessment. Bibliometric analysis reveals a rapidly expanding academic focus and emerging hotspots shaping the research landscape. Conventional mould-based and cutting-edge additive manufacturing-based fabrication processes are critically evaluated with respect to techno-environmental prospects. Furthermore, various physico-mechanical properties and modulating strategies, including surface coating, hybrid reinforcements, and biotechnological interventions, are highlighted to enhance material performance. Additionally, life-cycle assessments are examined to elucidate their industrial application from a sustainable standpoint. Overall, the review presents AMB as a viable solution within the circular bioeconomy, addressing the dual imperatives of substituting fossil-based materials and managing agricultural waste through a technological and translational perspective.
Obesity, Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) represent interconnected global health problems that can be caused by dietary factors, life-style changes and alterations in the gut microbiota composition. While numerous reports highlight the connections between microbial taxa and the host diseases, the underlying molecular mechanisms behind the impact of metabolites on the disease development remain poorly defined. In this review, the connection between four interrelated pathways through which metabolites from the gut microbiota affect metabolic disease are highlighted. They include (i) reprogramming of host metabolism through histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition and remodeling of the chromatin structure; (ii) mitochondrial dysfunction and disturbance in redox balance; (iii) hijacking of receptors and pathway biased crosstalk (FFAR2/3, GPR109A, FXR, TGR5, AhR, TLR4) and (iv) disruption of intestinal barrier and induction of metabolic endotoxemia. Such axes form a feedback network through which the inflammation and insulin resistance spread over the entire gut-adipose-liver-pancreas-muscle axis. The effect of the metabolites is very context-dependent since it relies on the concentration threshold, receptor bias, disease state and interaction between the host genotype and enterotype. The translational applications include composite metabolite biomarkers, enterotype-based therapeutic approaches, bacterial extracellular vesicles and machine learning approaches to develop multi-omics data analysis resulting in generation of a digital twin model.
The F₀F₁ ATP synthase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) is an essential membrane-embedded rotary motor responsible for ATP synthesis and maintenance of the proton motive force in bacteria. The transmembrane F₀ domain comprises the c-subunit (atpE) and the a-subunit (atpB). Their coordinated interactions are needed for proton translocation and torque generation. Bedaquiline (BDQ), FDA-approved diarylquinoline for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), targets the F₀ motor by binding at the a–c interface and inhibiting rotary catalysis. To the best of our knowledge, this study represents the first attempt to analyze the effects of mutations in the atpB protein on its structural stability in the F₀ domain, thereby highlighting the novelty of this work. In this study, we integrated Indian whole-genome sequencing (WGS) datasets (PRJNA37907) with long-timescale (1000 ns) membrane-embedded molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Among 57 atpB mutations identified from WGS analysis, L173I was selected for structural and MD analysis. L173I is located at the atpB-atpE interface near the BDQ-binding region, despite V177L and S184A showing higher prevalence. Comparative MD simulations encompassed four systems: wild-type apo, wild-type with BDQ, L173I apo, and L173I with BDQ. Structural interrogation revealed that the L173I substitution induces subtle destabilization of the global fold of the atpB-atpE complex relative to the apo state, while more critically attenuating inter-subunit contacts between the a-subunit and the c-ring. These perturbations provide a mechanistic rationale for reduced BDQ susceptibility, arising from altered interfacial dynamics rather than complete abrogation of drug binding. This integrative genomic–structural framework advances our understanding of ATP synthase-mediated resistance in M. tuberculosis.
Intratumoural bacteria have emerged as potential components of the breast tumour microenvironment, yet their spatial organization remains poorly understood. This study aimed to characterize the spatial distribution of three frequently identified bacterial genera (Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus) in breast tumour tissues using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). For this purpose, thirty formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded breast tumour specimens from Moroccan patients were analyzed using genus-specific probes along with a universal bacterial 16 S rRNA probe. FISH analysis revealed a non-random spatial distribution of all three bacterial genera, characterized by preferential localization within tumour regions. Bacterial signals were consistently observed in close proximity to tumour cell nuclei, suggesting a recurrent perinuclear organization. Conversely, signals were absent or rarely detected in normal epithelial cells, even though they were present in the lumen of breast ducts. These findings demonstrate a distinct spatial organization of intratumoural bacteria in breast cancer tissues and support a preferential association with tumour cells. Although causality cannot be inferred, this work provides morphological evidence that establishes a framework for future studies investigating bacteria-tumour cell interactions and their contribution to the breast cancer microenvironment.
Lead pollution is a major environmental concern, but current decontamination technologies remain limited due to high costs. Therefore, alternative biotechnological processes have been successfully developed and applied due to their reduced cost and lower aggressiveness in the environment. The remarkable adaptive versatility of Chromobacterium violaceum in metal-contaminated environments makes this bacterium a promising candidate for Pb bioremediation. Therefore, the reference strain C. violaceum ATCC 12,472 and the environmental isolate C. violaceum SCV1, the first strain of this species isolated from a Brazilian area with natural Pb occurrence, were evaluated for Pb resistance under different Pb concentrations and exposure times. Pb biosorption was assessed by scanning electron microscopy, while strain-specific protein profiles were characterized using tandem mass spectrometry-based proteomic analysis. The results obtained revealed the potential of C. violaceum to perform lead bioremediation. Scanning electron microscopy analysis confirmed the biosorption of lead by C. violaceum strains. C. violaceum SCV1 was able to remove up to 40
Genomics has emerged as a powerful tool for addressing the global scenario of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the world. The chances of strain circulation across diverse ecosystems has led us to understand the situation from one health point of view. The study examined 897 Escherichia coli genomes across healthcare (n = 615), veterinary and fisheries (n = 219), and environment (n = 63) from Gujarat, India, from 2022 to 2025. The genomes were characterized by sequence type (ST), serotype, and phylogroup analysis to identify the dominant clonal lineages. Furthermore, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and plasmids were analyzed to understand the movement of horizontal gene transfer (HGT). The putative transmission events across sectors were identified using single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with distance thresholds of 0, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50. We reported the presence of internationally reported dominant clonal lineage ST131-B2-O25:H4 across all settings. The healthcare isolates carried a heavy burden of ARGs than the environment and veterinary and fisheries sectors (median 9 vs. 5 vs. 1 gene per isolate), which is consistent with the use of clinical antimicrobial use exerting the dominant selective pressure in this dataset. Plasmid clustering identified 505 distinct clusters, of which 64 were detected across all three sectors, carrying acquired resistance genes namely mphA, sul1, blaCMY-59, qnrS1, and tetA on predominantly IncF (IA, IB, IC, II) replicons. Resistance genes and mobile genetic elements (IS3, IS5, and IS66) were classified by co-location confidence. Potential transmission events and co-circulation both within and across niches were indicated by overlapping clusters. Genomic clustering and mobility patterns of plasmids identified in the E. coli strains are consistent with the possible clonal and plasmid-mediated spread from healthcare to the veterinary and fisheries and the environment sectors. This study’s convenience-based sampling and cross-sectoral design do not establish confirmed or directional transmission. These findings support a One Health framework for AMR surveillance, prioritizing biosecurity, antimicrobial stewardship, and infection prevention and control across sectors.
Vinblastine is a clinically important anticancer alkaloid, and the development of efficient microbial production systems remains a promising strategy for improving its sustainable availability. In the present study, Alternaria alternata Mut-85 was evaluated for vinblastine production using immobilized fungal cultures. Five entrapment carriers, were compared using both spore and mycelium immobilization. Calcium alginate was the most effective for vinblastine production by immobilized spores and mycelia, reaching 2.15 ± 0.08 and 2.75 ± 0.03 mg L⁻¹, respectively. Mycelium-loaded alginate beads were therefore selected for further process development. Optimization of cultivation conditions showed that vinblastine production was favored by 12 days of incubation at 25 °C, 100 mL medium volume, and 100 beads per flask. Response surface methodology was then applied to optimize the immobilization parameters, recording the optima of 105.21 g L⁻¹ for sodium alginate, 145.10 g L⁻¹ for fresh biomass, and 60 g L⁻¹ for calcium chloride, giving a predicted vinblastine concentration of 5.95 mg L⁻¹, closely matching the experimental value of 5.88 mg L⁻¹. Nutrient fed strategies further improved production, with the separated four-pulse feeding program giving the highest titer of 7.04 ± 0.25 mg L⁻¹ and productivity of 0.587 mg L⁻¹ day⁻¹. Repeated-batch cultivation confirmed the reusability of immobilized beads, with the first two cycles maintaining high vinblastine titers of 7.00 ± 0.24 and 6.81 ± 0.36 mg L⁻¹. Overall, this study establishes alginate-immobilized A. alternata Mut-85 as an efficient and reusable platform for enhanced fungal vinblastine production.
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, the causal agent of anthracnose, significantly reduces the productivity of high-value crops, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are gaining attention as a disease-management approach. This study assessed how nutrient sources and microbial interaction systems shape VOC-mediated antagonism against C. gloeosporioides. Culture medium strongly affected antifungal performance, with Luria–Bertani (LB) promoting up to a 4.28-fold increase in inhibition compared with Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). Interaction systems also shaped antagonism: bipartite systems generated up to 1.31-fold stronger inhibition than tripartite systems. Volatilome profiling of bipartite interactions involving Trichoderma strains (T1, T2, T3) and Bacillus subtilis (Bs) revealed distinct VOC signatures. Isopropyl alcohol, 6-pentyl-α-pyrone (6PP), 2-oxindole (2OI), dimethyl disulfide, 2-pentylfuran, and α-phellandrene were assessed individually; 6PP and 2OI showed the strongest inhibition, reaching 43
Microbial cellulose (MC) is a natural biopolymer distinguished by its chemical purity, nanofibrillar architecture, eco-friendliness, biodegradability, and mechanical properties. These distinctive features of MC have expanded the potential applications across diverse fields. However, its transition from laboratory-scale production to industrial manufacturing remains constrained by its low productivity, high production costs, genetic instability of the cellulose-producing strains, accumulation of inhibitory by-products, and inadequate oxygen supply during the fermentation process. These limitations are further complicated by poor standardization of the relationship between the engineered biosynthetic pathways and the resulting physicochemical properties of cellulose. Hence, this review critically examines MC biosynthesis pathways across bacteria, algae, and oomycetes, with particular emphasis on the bacteria as the most advanced biofactory for MC production. Recent advances in metabolic engineering, genome editing, and synthetic biology have opened unprecedented avenues to enhance large-scale cellulose productivity by optimizing precursor pathways, suppressing byproduct formation, engineering cyclic-di-GMP regulatory networks, efficient oxygen utilization, and developing synthetic biology toolkits. Finally, we identify key research priorities including development of genetically stable microbial strains, improved oxygen-management strategies, and integrated strain-process engineering required to translate MC production from laboratory to commercially viable biofactories. In parallel, innovations in technology like advanced fermentation strategy and bioreactor designs are the crucial determinants for accelerating MC production, bridging the gaps between experimental conditions and commercial implementation. Altogether, these advancements will lay the foundation and pave the way for developing efficient cellulose biofactories to meet the increasing demand for high-quality and sustainable biomaterials, fostering the transition towards a resource-efficient, eco-friendly future.
The toxicity of salinity in irrigated land has significantly affected global rice production. Cyanobacteria are a core atmospheric nitrogen-fixer in the rice-field community. However, extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) play a distinct role in the adaptive fitness of cyanobacteria under salinity stress. This study analyzed physiochemical, morphological, biomass, and polymer characteristics of rice-field cyanobacterium Neowestiellopsis sp. VKB03. Our findings showed that high salt content elevated the levels of carbohydrates, EPS, lipids, proline, stress biomarkers (H2O2 and MDA), and antioxidants (CAT and APX). Interestingly, elevated salt reduced photochemical activity (Fv/Fm and ETRmax) by inhibiting electron donor and acceptor sides, leading to PSII inactivation. Conversely, regulated and non-regulated photochemical fluorescence quenching [Y(NPQ), NPQ, and Y(NO)] increased, enhancing energy dissipation. Notably, fast kinetics showed that inactivated PSII reaction centers limited energy transfer, increased heat loss, and reduced the potential for linear electron flow (LEF). Inversely, electron transfer efficiency from transitional carriers to final PSI receivers increased, as confirmed by the post-illumination fluorescence transient (PIFT). Furthermore, microphotographs showed increased levels of sulfated and carboxylated mucopolysaccharides with high salt supplementation. Importantly, intracellular Ca2+ and Na+ levels increased, whereas K+ levels decreased to maintain cellular homeostasis. Additionally, CHNS analysis revealed increased C and H, and reduced N, thereby raising the C/N and H/C ratios. Conspicuously, FTIR peaks (1040 and 1075 cm⁻¹) and P-XRD analysis confirmed polysaccharides-related functional groups and the amorphous nature of biomass, respectively. Our findings demonstrate that rice-field Neowestiellopsis sp. adapts to elevated salt and increased carbohydrate accumulation, supporting EPS production.
Nitrogen is often a limiting nutrient for agricultural crops. Most microbes also require an external fixed-nitrogen source for optimal growth. Even for microbes capable of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), it is generally the case that they will regulate their metabolism to prioritize assimilation of fixed-nitrogen. Microbes employ various strategies and pathways to take advantage of available fixed-nitrogen compounds found in their natural environments. Azotobacter vinelandii is a model microbe for the study of BNF. Due to the high energetic cost of the process, BNF in A. vinelandii is repressed in the presence of ammonium, urea and nitrate. Prior studies indicated that strong inhibition of nitrogen fixation by urea and nitrate in A. vinelandii is actually the result of intracellular conversions of these metabolites into ammonium. In this study, we demonstrate a strategy to eliminate BNF inhibition by both urea and nitrate at concentrations ranging as high as 15 mM in a strain lacking the genes for urease and nitrate reductase, resulting in continued nitrogenase activity in the presence of these common fertilizer inputs. In contrast to the properties of A. vinelandii, the diazotroph Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus naturally lacks these pathways, prompting the question of whether urea or nitrate inhibit BNF or support growth in G. diazotrophicus. To probe this observation, we developed experiments to demonstrate that while the presence of urea and nitrate delay the initial growth rate in G. diazotrophicus, nitrogenase activity and ammonium accumulation occurs at a similar rate in the presence of these metabolites. These results indicate that biological nitrogen fixation in G. diazotrophicus is somewhat insensitive to these nitrogen sources. This illustrates that alternative pathways in diazotrophic strains should be carefully considered in any efforts to optimize extracellular nitrogen production for biofertilizer applications and strain optimization, and that additional design strategies can be effective to assure that diazotrophs continue to fix nitrogen in the presence of specific nitrogen compounds common to industrial fertilizers.
Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are ubiquitous rhizosphere microorganisms that promote plant health through various mechanisms. Although the study of PGPR inoculants in soil has been done for ages, their application in hydroponic systems has received relatively limited attention. This review identifies PGPR inoculants that are commonly used in hydroponics, methods of application, and their effects on plant growth and nutrient use efficiency. Literature shows that PGPR inoculants improve plant performance in controlled hydroponic systems through the production of growth-stimulating substances, nitrogen fixation, and improved nutrient acquisition. However, the plant growth responses are highly variable depending on the composition of nutrient solutions, environmental factors, crop and microbe species, and the type of hydroponic system. The review identifies various challenges of PGPR inoculation in hydroponic systems and future research directions to address the current gaps. Generally, the productivity of hydroponic systems can be enhanced through advanced inoculation strategies and the development of suitable carrier materials to improve inoculant survival, viability, and functions. Emphasis should also be placed on designing system-specific microbial consortia and Synthetic communities that are tailored to the unique ecological conditions of hydroponic systems.
Antimicrobial peptides serve as an innate defence mechanism against various pathogens. They are being explored as potential alternatives to antibiotics and could play an important role in addressing antimicrobial resistance in aquaculture. In this study, a novel 15-mer antimicrobial peptide, WK15, was rationally designed from the alpha-subunit of rainbow trout haemoglobin. The peptide is amphipathic, exhibits strong membrane interactions, and has a net charge of + 5. Molecular docking showed that WK15 binds strongly to aerolysin, a virulence protein of Aeromonas sobria. Its antimicrobial activity was tested against a range of bacterial pathogens, including Staphylococcus epidermidis, Lactococcus garvieae, Staphylococcus aureus, Edwardsiella tarda, Aeromonas sobria, Yersinia ruckeri, and Aeromonas hydrophila. The peptide exhibited broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, with minimum inhibitory concentration values ranging from 22.6 µM to 500 µM and minimum bactericidal concentration values from 45.2 µM to 700 µM. Additionally, WK15 remained stable and effective at higher temperatures and under elevated salt and serum levels. DNA-binding assays confirmed its concentration-dependent interaction with bacterial DNA in vitro, suggesting that DNA binding may represent a potential secondary mechanism. The peptide demonstrated negligible cytotoxicity toward the Epithelioma Papulosum Cyprini cell line and low haemolytic activity against fish erythrocytes, indicating favourable biocompatibility and reduced host-cell toxicity. Scanning electron microscopy analysis of S. aureus treated with WK15 revealed significant morphological alterations consistent with membrane-targeting activity. Collectively, these findings highlight that WK15 is a promising candidate with high stability and negligible host toxicity, underscoring its potential as an alternative to conventional antibiotics in aquaculture.
Plasma metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) and blood culture detect different components of the microbial signal and frequently produce discordant organism reports. We characterized microbial signal class, report-derived burden, organism-level concordance, and independent clinical attribution in a retrospective, single-center, episode-level cohort. Among 329 episodes with evaluable plasma mNGS reports, 315 had blood culture performed; 232 were mNGS positive/culture negative and 53 were positive by both methods. In the 232 discordant episodes, the recorded routine-care diagnosis classified 124 as bloodstream infection (BSI) and 108 as non-BSI. Nonviral signals were present in 78.2
Microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP) has emerged as a sustainable biotechnological approach for soil stabilization and environmental remediation. However, the efficiency of MICP largely depends on selecting environmentally adapted ureolytic bacterial strains with robust biomineralization potential. In the present study, a native marine ureolytic isolate, Bacillus sp. N₉, was comparatively evaluated against selected MICP-associated bacteria using integrated comparative genomics and in vitro functional analyses. Genome-based taxonomic assessment revealed phylogenetic proximity of Bacillus sp. N₉ with Lederbergia lenta, while whole-genome phylogeny distinguished the isolate from conventional ureolytic Sporosarcina strains. Pan-genome analysis of selected ureolytic bacteria suggested extensive genomic diversity, with a predominance of accessory and cloud genes, indicating high genomic plasticity among MICP-associated taxa. Comparative analysis of urease structural genes (ureA, ureB, and ureC) showed strong conservation with closely related taxa, while moderate divergence from conventional Sporosarcina strains suggested evolutionary diversification of ureolytic pathways. Synteny analysis further confirmed conservation of urease gene clusters across related genomes. Functional assessment under standardized urea–CaCl₂ conditions indicated progressive alkalinization and visible CaCO₃ precipitation by both Bacillus sp. N₉ and Sporosarcina ureae MTCC 9133. The observed increase in medium pH under urea-supplemented conditions by Bacillus sp. N₉ is suggestive of active ureolysis, reflecting the net accumulation of ammonium (NH₄) and carbonate ions (CO₃²⁻), generated through urease-mediated urea hydrolysis. The study establishes a genome-to-function framework for evaluating native ureolytic bacteria and highlights the significance of environmentally adapted microbial strains for sustainable MICP applications.
Phytoplasmas are phloem-limited, wall-less plant pathogens that impose significant biotic stress on host plants, resulting in substantial yield losses worldwide. However, their genetic diversity, host associations, and population structure in tropical agroecosystems remain poorly understood. This study presents a nationwide multilocus assessment of ‘Ca. Phytoplasma’ diversity, distribution, and population structure across Indian agroecosystems. A survey (2020–2023) across ten states identified 124 phytoplasma-positive samples from 42 host species and associated leafhopper insect vectors. Multilocus sequence analysis of 16S rRNA, secY, and rpl22 genes, supported by in silico RFLP, resolved the strains into five major ribosomal groups (16SrI, II, V, VI, and XI) encompassing 14 subgroups, with several strains (similarity coefficient ≤ 0.97) indicating candidate novel subgroups. Genetic diversity analysis revealed high haplotype diversity (Hd = 0.991) and substantial multilocus variation, with AMOVA showing > 50
Glycerol is a polyol that can be produced either chemically from oils or propylene, or biologically by yeasts, mainly under osmotic stress. Currently, glycerol is an abundant byproduct generated during biodiesel manufacturing that can be used as substrate in fermentative processes. Its efficient assimilation varies widely among yeast species; therefore, understanding the regulation of both transport and catabolism is pivotal for optimizing biotechnological processes based on this carbon source. This review addresses current knowledge on the regulatory networks controlling glycerol metabolism in yeasts, compassing transport mechanisms, metabolic pathways, transcriptional control and enzyme regulation. We highlight the distinct roles of the Stl1p symporter and Fps1p aquaglyceroporin in mediating glycerol flux across the plasma membrane, as well as the species-specific reliance on either the glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) or dihydroxyacetone (DHA) pathway for glycerol assimilation. Classical biochemical studies have shown that glycerol catabolic enzymes are tightly regulated by carbon source availability, osmotic conditions, and feedback inhibition. Recently, transcriptomic and genetic analyses, particularly in Yarrowia lipolytica, show that the glycerol metabolism is governed by complex interactions between catabolite repression, nutrient signaling, and metabolic intermediates such as G3P, which acts as a key regulatory signal. Despite significant advances, regulatory mechanisms remain elusive in most non-conventional yeasts, underscoring the need for broader comparative studies. In addition, we review major metabolic engineering strategies aimed at enhancing glycerol utilization or redirecting carbon flux toward targeted bioproducts, emphasizing how mechanistic insights into glycerol metabolism and its regulation can guide the development of engineered strains with improved features for industrial applications. Lastly, we pointed out promising avenues for future research and biotechnological innovation.
