Staphylococcus saccharolyticus is a slow-growing anaerobic coagulase-negative staphylococcus and a rare cause of bloodstream infections. We report the case of a previously healthy 35-year-old woman who presented with fever and headache. One anaerobic bottle from each of two separately collected blood culture sets became positive after 53 h, and S. saccharolyticus was identified using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry; both aerobic bottles remained negative. No focus of infection was detected. Repeat cultures drawn on day 3, before vancomycin treatment was started, were already negative. The patient received ceftriaxone for 3 days, vancomycin for 4 days, and oral clindamycin for 8 days, and recovered without relapse. The minimum inhibitory concentrations were obtained using a panel developed for aerobically growing gram-positive cocci and were reported without categorical interpretation, as no breakpoints have been validated for this species. Detection in two separately collected sets may represent true bacteremia even in the absence of an implanted device or comorbidity.
OBJECTIVE:Co-fermentation of lignocellulosic biomass and food waste (FW) can enhance the production of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) during anaerobic fermentation. However, the effect and mechanism of co-fermentation of Auricularia auricula waste (AW) with FW remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of co-fermentation of Auricularia auricula waste (AW) with food waste (FW) on volatile fatty acid (VFA) production. METHODS:Anaerobic fermentation experiments were conducted at different AW/FW ratios (1:0, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 0:1) based on volatile solids (VS). VS removal and VFA concentration were measured, and metagenomic sequencing was performed to elucidate the underlying enhancement mechanism. RESULTS:Co-fermentation significantly improved VS removal and VFA production, with both parameters increasing as the proportion of FW increased. The highest VS removal (48.9%) and VFA concentration (7929 mg/L) were achieved at an AW/FW ratio of 1:1, which were approximately double those of AW alone (22.4% and 3659 mg/L, respectively). Metagenomic analysis revealed that co-fermentation enriched bacterial genera such as Rummeliibacillus (25.4%) and Leuconostoc (9.2%), while Fungal genera Piromyces and Neocallimastix became dominant. Moreover, co-fermentation increased the relative abundance of carbohydrate-active enzymes and activated key functional genes in the VFA production pathway (e.g., ackA, PTA, MDH, HBD). CONCLUSION:Co-fermentation of AW and FW significantly enhanced the hydrolysis and VFA production. The enhancement mechanism of VFA production during co-fermentation primarily involved the synergistic interaction between substrate nutrient complementation and efficient microbial community. This study provides a feasible strategy for efficient VFA production from spent mushroom waste.
OBJECTIVES:Methanogens possess a variety of coenzymes and cofactors that are involved in redox reactions that occur during methanogenesis. One essential cofactor is F420, a deazaflavin derivate with an oligoglutamate side chain which acts as a low redox potential electron carrier and participates in electron transport coupled with energy conservation. This work aimed at characterizing cofactor F420 analogues in eight distinct acetoclastic and methylotrophic pure cultures of the class Methanosarcinia. METHODS:Pure cultures of Methanothrix soehngenii, Methanothrix thermoacetophila, Methanomethylovorans thermophila, Methanosarcina acetivorans, Methanosarcina flavescens, Methanosarcina lacustris, Methanosarcina spelaei, and Methanosarcina thermophila were cultivated under strict anaerobic conditions and analysed regarding various physiological parameters. Cofactor F420 was extracted via solid phase extraction and analysed via ion-pair reversed-phase HPLC. RESULTS:The study showed that methylotrophic organisms tended to exhibit a greater variety of distinct cofactor F420 glutamyl chain lengths than the obligately acetoclastic ones. The shortest average glutamyl chain length and the highest F420 yields were detected in Methanomethylovorans thermophila and Methanosarcina acetivorans - both incapable of internal H2 cycling which is present in the other investigated methanogens, whereas the longest chains were observed in Methanosarcina thermophila. Additionally, the total cofactor F420 concentration increased during the cultivation period of methanogens capable of methylotrophic methanogenesis, whereas no notable increase was detected in exclusively acetoclastic ones. CONCLUSIONS:These phenotypic comparisons further expand our understanding of how F420 tail length correlates with taxonomy and physiology, providing another puzzle piece toward a comprehensive picture of fundamental biochemical mechanisms in methanogens while establishing a baseline for biotechnological strategies on a yet distant horizon.
The role of type 2 immunity in protection against C. difficile infection (CDI) has recently become better appreciated, prompting further exploration into mechanistic underpinnings of host response to infection. Though it is known that abundance of type 2 effector cells negatively correlates with CDI severity in mice and humans and that experimental treatment with those effectors or type 2-promoting cytokines protects against severe disease, the underlying signaling pathways and downstream functions of effector cells remain unclear. Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), eosinophils, and alternatively activated macrophages (AAMs) have been identified as mediators of type 2 protection in CDI. ILC2s have been the most well-characterized thus far, as their stimulation by type 2 alarmins induces downstream effects on immune and epithelial cell processes. Eosinophils may contribute to enhanced tissue repair, immunomodulation, or antimicrobial effects during CDI, but their functional roles have not yet been defined. Alternatively activated macrophages may also contribute to tissue repair, though more mechanistic work must be performed to determine this. In this mini-review, we summarize existing knowledge of type 2-mediated protection in CDI and identify open areas of research and potential cells and signaling molecules of interest for future functional and mechanistic interrogation. Given the demonstrated importance of type 2 immunity in human and experimental CDI, these studies will be essential in the development of immunotherapeutic interventions for acute and recurrent CDI.
OBJECTIVES:Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is a major cause of healthcare-associated diarrhea and colitis worldwide. C. difficile exhibits extensive genetic diversity among different lineages. This study aimed to identify sequence types (STs) and clades of C. difficile isolates using multilocus sequence typing (MLST) in Iran. METHODS:A total of 37 C. difficile isolates untyped by capillary electrophoresis PCR ribotyping from our previous study were included in this work. The presence of toxin-encoding and accessory genes within the pathogenicity locus was determined by PCR. MLST was conducted using seven housekeeping genes to assess the genetic diversity of isolates. RESULTS:Among isolates, 33 distinct STs were identified, including 28 previously unreported STs. ST3 was the most dominant, followed by ST725, ST48, and ST237. The goeBURST analysis grouped 23 STs in clade 1 and 14 STs in singleton. The STs in both clade 1 and singletons were more frequently associated with community-acquired CDI (13/23, 56.5% and 11/14, 78.6%, respectively). Recurrent CDI was observed in 15/23 (56.4%) isolates from clade 1 and 14/14 (100%) from singletons. No significant difference was found relating to demographic and clinical characteristics in clade 1 and singletons, except for CDI severity (P value = 0.002) and antibiotic-associated diarrhea (P value = 0.02), which were associated with singletons. CONCLUSION:This study demonstrates a high degree of genetic heterogeneity among C. difficile isolates from Iranian CDI patients, with ST3 as the dominant type. Stringent molecular surveillance is essential to understand the epidemiological dynamics and population structure of C. difficile in Iran.
OBJECTIVES:The aim of this study was to characterize the distribution of anaerobic bacteria isolated from clinical specimens across major specimen types and to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of the most frequently isolated species. METHODS:Clinical specimens collected in 2022 from three university hospitals in Warsaw were analyzed. Anaerobes were identified using MALDI-TOF MS, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed according to EUCAST guidelines. A total of 1,425 isolates were included and classified as Gram-negative anaerobic bacilli (GNAB), Gram-positive anaerobic cocci (GPAC), Gram-positive anaerobic bacilli (GPAB), and spore-forming bacilli. RESULTS:Skin and soft tissue specimens yielded the largest number of isolates (n = 720), predominantly Finegoldia magna, Bacteroides fragilis, Anaerococcus vaginalis, and Prevotella bivia. Among intra-abdominal specimens (n = 366), the Bacteroides species constituted the majority of GNAB. Among head and neck specimens (n = 261), Prevotella spp. and Parvimonas micra were most common. Isolates recovered from blood cultures (n = 59) were dominated by Cutibacterium acnes, followed by Bacteroides spp. and Clostridium spp. Metronidazole and meropenem showed the highest overall activity (>95% susceptibility). β-lactam-β-lactamase inhibitor combinations remained broadly effective, with susceptibility rates exceeding 90% for most anaerobic species, although lower susceptibility was observed among certain Bacteroides species, particularly B. thetaiotaomicron (69.1%). Clindamycin susceptibility was 50% or lower among Bacteroides species and variable among Prevotella spp. and GPAC. CONCLUSIONS:Anaerobic bacteria isolated from clinical specimens demonstrated considerable species diversity and characteristic specimen-specific distribution patterns. Bacteroides and Prevotella species, predominated in intra-abdominal specimens, whereas F. magna and other GPAC were most commonly recovered from skin and soft tissue infections. Species belonging to Actinomyces and related genera were frequently identified in specimens from head and neck infections. Although susceptibility rates exceeded 95% for carbapenems and metronidazole, species-dependent resistance-particularly to clindamycin and piperacillin-tazobactam-highlights the need for ongoing surveillance and precise species-level identification to support optimal empirical therapy.
Healthy human gut microbiomes are essential for overall wellness and must be safeguarded by incorporating preservation into clinical decision-making processes and policies. Given the paradigm shift of single-acting bacteria causing infectious diseases to a new understanding of interacting communities of bacteria that build up stable network structures and functions to prevent diseases, a One-Health umbrella has emerged that interconnects all life through their respective microbiota. The preservation of this homeostasis is a term coined Microbiome Stewardship. Although multi-causal, antimicrobial use has the most disruptive effect on the microbiome, quickly changing microbiome structure and function as well as promoting antimicrobial resistant gene (ARG) generation and abundance. Clinically, Microbiome Stewardship could lead to new strategies around antimicrobial administration route and enhanced consideration of whether anaerobic coverage is required, especially routine empiric coverage. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and perturbation of the microbiome effect short- and long-term patient outcomes and should drive the drug development process and repurposing of current antimicrobials. In the new scientific era of systems biology providing increasingly accessible and cost-effective studies, evaluation of the microbiome during the antimicrobial drug development process should become the new standard. Microbiome Stewardship incorporation into clinical practice and drug development will advance patient outcomes and AMR prevention on an individual and public health platform.
Several Clostridium perfringens toxinotypes may cause disease in both humans and animals. The role of non-native wildlife as carriers of this pathogen has not been fully investigated. Direct PCR toxinotyping on intestinal content of clinically healthy individuals of the invasive American mink (Neogale vison) in southern Chile, detected the genes encoding alpha, beta, epsilon, iota, enterotoxin and necrotic-enteritis b-like toxins. No microscopic lesions associated with these toxins were observed in samples of intestinal tissue, but the study confirms that minks are exposed to and can harbor C. perfringens toxigenic strains in their intestinal contents, serving as a baseline for future epidemiological monitoring.
INTRODUCTION:Clostridioides difficile infection is primarily attributed to toxin A (TcdA) and toxin B (TcdB), the major mediators of epithelial damage and intestinal inflammation. However, strain-dependent differences in pathogenicity have been reported, suggesting that additional bacterial factors may contribute to host inflammatory responses. OBJECTIVE:To compare the inflammatory activity of culture supernatants from the single clinical isolate LIBA-5751/NAPCR1/RT012/ST54 and reference C. difficile strains under toxin-containing and glucose-repressed conditions. METHODS:C. difficile strains, including the clinical isolates LIBA-5751/NAPCR1/RT012/ST54 and LIBA-5758/NAP1/RT027/ST01 and the reference strains VPI10463/RT003/ST046 and 630/RT012/ST54, were grown anaerobically in tryptose-yeast extract-thioglycolate broth with or without 1% glucose. Glucose-associated reduction of toxin activity was assessed by electrophoretic protein profiling, cytotoxicity assays, and Rac1 glucosylation analysis. Biological activity was evaluated in a mouse ligated ileal loop model by macroscopic examination, histopathology, cytokine quantification, and myeloperoxidase activity. RESULTS:Glucose supplementation did not substantially alter bacterial growth but markedly reduced detectable toxin-associated bands, cytopathic activity, and Rac1 glucosylation. Toxin-containing supernatants from LIBA-5758/NAP1/RT027/ST01 and VPI10463/RT003/ST046 produced the most pronounced epithelial injury. Under the same conditions, LIBA-5758/NAP1/RT027/ST01, VPI10463/RT003/ST046, and LIBA-5751/NAPCR1/RT012/ST54 induced robust inflammatory responses. Under glucose-repressed conditions, epithelial damage was no longer evident, and inflammatory activity was markedly reduced in LIBA-5758/NAP1/RT027/ST01, VPI10463/RT003/ST046, and 630/RT012/ST54. In contrast, supernatants from LIBA-5751/NAPCR1/RT012/ST54 retained substantial inflammatory activity, including increased TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and myeloperoxidase activity, despite the absence of overt epithelial damage. CONCLUSIONS:The clinical isolate LIBA-5751/NAPCR1/RT012/ST54 retained substantial inflammatory activity under glucose-repressed conditions despite markedly reduced detectable toxin-associated activity. This phenotype was not observed to the same extent in the other strains examined, including the RT012/ST54 reference strain 630. These findings identify a strain-specific inflammatory phenotype observed in LIBA-5751/NAPCR1/RT012/ST54 and support further investigation into the extracellular factors that may contribute to inflammatory responses in C. difficile.
OBJECTIVES:Currently, Clostridioides difficile infections (CDIs) are one of the leading causes of nosocomial infections worldwide. In Latin America, the most economically developed countries have seen a rise in these infections in recent years, likely driven by expanded hospital capacity and shifting demographic patterns. However, epidemiological data on CDIs in Mexico are scarce. In this study, we evaluated the current molecular epidemiological situation in a tertiary-care hospital in northern Mexico and correlated it with clinical and laboratory data to identify indicators of infection with the hypervirulent RT027 ribotype. METHODS:This was a prospective, cross-sectional, analytical, and observational study. Samples were collected from patients with confirmed CDIs using a two-step algorithm. Cultures and molecular analyses were performed for toxigenic classification and ribotyping of the C. difficile strains. Clinical data were also collected to perform correlation analyses with the ribotypes. RESULTS:In this study, 71 C difficile strains were collected from 111 samples available for analysis. The genes for toxins A and B were found in 85.9% (61/71) and 81.7% (58/71) of the samples, respectively, while the gene for the binary toxin was detected in 52.1% (37/71) of the samples. RT027 was the most frequently isolated strain (50.7%, 36/71), followed by RT001 (11.3%, 8/71). None of the RTs analyzed showed significant changes over the years of analysis; however, the presence of RT002 and RT014 appeared more frequently in the later years. Patient age was slightly increased in RT027 CDIs, without reaching significance (p = 0.071); days of hospitalization, previous hospitalizations, antibiotic use, ATLAS and Charlson score values showed no differences between RT027 and other ribotypes CDIs. CONCLUSIONS:In our study, we observed a moderate predominance of RT027 over the past four years, and the presence of various RTs associated with community-acquired CDIs. Patient age was slightly increased in patients who presented with CDI caused by RT027; however, this data was not statistically significant. More comprehensive studies with larger sample sizes and longer analysis periods are needed to determine the epidemiological shifts in C. difficile ribotypes in Mexico.
OBJECTIVES:Little is known about the impact of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among adults in the community. We examined the impact of CDI on HRQoL among adults with CDI in the outpatient setting and compared it to HRQoL among patients without CDI. METHODS:We conducted a prospective study among adult Kaiser Permanente members ≥50 years with CDI in the outpatient setting (cases) and members ≥45 years who had an outpatient encounter without diarrhea or C. difficile (controls). Cases and controls were not hospitalized within 7 days. Cases and controls completed the EQ-5D-5L at baseline and after 60 days. RESULTS:Our analyses included 213 adults with CDI and 426 adults without CDI. Adults with and without CDI reported similar perceived health status [median visual analogue scale (VAS) of 80.0 and 81.0, (p = 0.08)] and utility index scores [median of 0.9 for both; (p = 0.16)] before illness. On their worst day, adults with CDI reported lower perceived health status and utility index scores, compared to pre-infection (p < 0.0001). Decrements in median VAS and utility indices among adults with CDI from pre-infection to worst day were significantly greater than decrements among adults without CDI (p < 0.0001 for both). At 60 days, adults with and without CDI had VAS and utility index scores similar to pre-illness levels. CONCLUSIONS:Adults with CDI experienced significant reductions in HRQoL on the worst day of illness that were greater than that experienced by those without CDI. HRQoL among adults with CDI at 60 days was similar to pre-infection levels.
OBJECTIVES:Enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis (ETBF) is a subspecies of B. fragilis that is considered to contribute to colorectal carcinogenesis through the activity of the B. fragilis toxin (BFT). However, colonic carriage of ETBF is also evident in a subset of asymptomatic individuals. In vitro studies using the HT29 cell line have linked BFT to the disruption of cell-cell adhesion and inflammation. This cell line, however, fails to consider the role of the mucus barrier in protecting the colonic epithelium in healthy individuals. This study aimed to investigate the role of a cell-associated mucus layer in modulating host responses to ETBF. METHODS:Mucus-producing HT29 MTX-E12 cells and non-mucus-producing HT29 cells were co-cultured with ETBF to evaluate the impact of the mucus layer on bacterial-host interactions. This was assessed by quantifying changes in mucus depth, mucin protein levels, E-cadherin expression, IL-8 secretion, and bft transcription. RESULTS:Both ETBF and nontoxigenic B. fragilis (NTBF) demonstrated the ability to infiltrate the mucus layer and were associated with decreased levels of the MUC2 mucin protein. The presence of a mucus layer, however, prevented the loss of E-cadherin and reduced IL-8 secretion, markers of cell-cell adhesion and inflammation, respectively. Downregulation of bft transcription following co-culture with mucus-producing cells directly linked the mucus layer to attenuated toxin production. CONCLUSIONS:These findings demonstrate that the colonic mucus layer functions not only as a physical barrier but also as an active regulator of bacterial virulence, potentially contributing to the asymptomatic carriage of ETBF in healthy individuals.
BACKGROUND:Bacteroides fragilis is a dominant member of the human intestinal microbiota and is known for its ecological plasticity and capacity to persist under fluctuating intestinal conditions. Bile salts are abundant host-derived molecules that act not only as antimicrobial agents but also as environmental cues shaping bacterial adaptation in the gut. OBJECTIVES:This study investigated how B. fragilis adapts to bile salts at physiological, structural, and metabolic levels. METHODS:A panel of clinical and commensal strains was evaluated for bile tolerance. The B. fragilis type strain ATCC 25285 was selected for in-depth analyses of biofilm formation, extracellular matrix composition, antimicrobial tolerance, and mucin translocation. RESULTS:Clinical isolates showed high bile tolerance, with MIC values up to 14% (w/v). Bile exposure promoted biofilm formation, particularly in the presence of glucose and mucin-derived carbohydrates, resulting in thick, protein-rich extracellular matrices. Biofilms formed under bile conditions displayed increased tolerance to Metronidazole and the antimicrobial peptide LL-37. Bile salts also significantly reduced bacterial translocation across a mucin layer. CONCLUSIONS:Our results support a multilayered adaptive model in which bile salts act as environmental cues that reshape B. fragilis physiology, enhancing fitness, persistence, and host interactions while favoring luminal colonization.
OBJECTIVE:Bacterial vaginosis (BV) represents a profound ecological shift from a Lactobacillus-dominated microbiota to a diverse polymicrobial biofilm associated with adverse outcomes. While taxonomic signatures are well-documented, the functional mechanisms driving this transition remain obscured. This study elucidates the genomic potential for metabolic reprogramming and the putative "functional handover" underpinning the stability of the dysbiotic state. METHODS:A computational meta-analysis of 3557 vaginal microbiomes from diverse global cohorts was performed using the standardized MGnify pipeline. A high-resolution subset of 187 whole-genome shotgun (WGS) metagenomes was stratified to compare functional potential across demographic groups. Taxon-function interaction networks were constructed, utilizing a dual-filter statistical approach (p < 0.05 and effect size ranking), to map the shift from homeostatic maintenance to dysbiotic metabolic potential. RESULTS:BV was characterized by a fundamental shift from "maintenance" pathways to high-turnover "growth-oriented" genomic repertoires. While ABC transporter-like domains were present in healthy communities, dysbiosis was marked by a quantitative expansion and diversification of these systems alongside P-loop NTPases. Network analysis revealed a putative "functional handover": while Gardnerella serves as the adherent structural scaffold, the metabolic burden appears to be associated with secondary anaerobes, specifically BVAB1 and Sneathia, which exhibit strong genomic correlations with nutrient transport and stress response pathways. Crucially, microbiomes from women of African ancestry (Black cohort) exhibited a distinct functional profile with genomic signatures consistent with functions previously associated with resistome expansion (e.g., tetracycline/macrolide resistance), contrasting with Asian cohorts. CONCLUSION:BV is a state of metabolic reprogramming where genomic functional dominance is transferred from Lactobacillus to a cooperative network of anaerobic opportunists. Identifying BVAB1 and Sneathia as candidate metabolic engines, supported by a Gardnerella scaffold, challenges current therapeutic paradigms and highlights the potential for precision medicine targeting specific functional drivers and resistome profiles across diverse populations.
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron bacteremia remains poorly characterized. We retrospectively analyzed 23 cases of B. thetaiotaomicron bacteremia treated at our hospital. The 30-day mortality rate was 34.8%. Infections were mainly gastrointestinal and associated with immunosuppression. Isolates were largely susceptible to β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors, carbapenems, and metronidazole, supporting antimicrobial therapy.
BACKGROUND:Species of the families Prevotellaceae and Fusobacteriaceae are frequently involved in endogenous and polymicrobial infections. Increasing antimicrobial resistance among anaerobic bacteria highlights the importance of local surveillance studies and resistance mechanism analysis. This study aimed to evaluate antimicrobial susceptibility profiles and selected resistance determinants among clinical Prevotellaceae and Fusobacteriaceae isolates recovered at a tertiary care center. METHODS:A total of 110 anaerobic gram-negative isolates, including 76 Prevotellaceae and 34 Fusobacteriaceae isolates, recovered between July 2018 and June 2022, were included. Species identification was performed using MALDI-TOF MS. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) for ampicillin, piperacillin-tazobactam, cefoxitin, meropenem, clindamycin, metronidazole, and tigecycline was performed by agar dilution according to CLSI recommendations. β-lactamase production was evaluated using nitrocefin disks. The presence of cfxA, ermF, tetQ, and nim genes was investigated by real-time PCR. RESULTS:Piperacillin-tazobactam, meropenem, metronidazole, and tigecycline showed high in vitro activity against all isolates. Prevotella spp. showed high resistance rates to ampicillin (78.9%) and clindamycin (57.9%), while resistance rates among Segatella spp. were 58.6% and 44.8%, respectively. Fusobacterium spp. demonstrated low ampicillin resistance (8.9%), and no clindamycin resistance was detected. Clindamycin resistance was identified in four Hoylesella isolates, whereas ampicillin resistance was observed in two Hoylesella isolates and one Hallella bergensis isolate. β-lactamase production was detected in 76.3% of Prevotella spp., 51.7% of Segatella spp., and 8.9% of Fusobacterium spp. isolates. The cfxA, ermF, and tetQ genes were detected in 86.8%, 71.1%, and 60.5% of Prevotella spp.; 51.7%, 58.6%, and 27.6% of Segatella spp.; and 8.9%, 5.9%, and 11.8% of Fusobacterium spp. isolates, respectively. The nimK gene was identified in two Prevotella bivia isolates without phenotypic metronidazole resistance. CONCLUSIONS:Marked differences in antimicrobial susceptibility profiles were observed between Prevotellaceae and Fusobacteriaceae isolates. Prevotellaceae isolates demonstrated substantial resistance to ampicillin and clindamycin and frequently harbored transferable resistance determinants, whereas Fusobacterium spp. largely retained susceptibility to commonly used anti-anaerobic agents. Continuous surveillance of anaerobic bacteria remains important, particularly given ongoing taxonomic revisions within the Prevotellaceae family.
Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has emerged as an effective therapy for the prevention of recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection (rCDI). Despite this therapeutic success, questions remain about safety and standardization of protocols, leading to calls for more defined biotherapeutics. While FMT-mediated protection is associated with restoration of the intestinal microbiota and metabolome, our understanding of its impact on host immune responses and restoration of colonic homeostasis remains incomplete. In this review, we focus on our current knowledge regarding the effects of FMT on host responses, including immune responses, colonic barrier restoration, and host metabolism. FMT is associated with restoration of immune signaling, which is depleted following antibiotic therapy. Restoration is associated with a shift towards type 2 and regulatory immune responses that limit intestinal inflammation and promote repair. FMT also modifies non-immune cells, promoting enhanced barrier integrity and significantly modifying host metabolism within the gut. FMT studies utilize a variety of experimental protocols and FMT formulations, and more mechanistic studies are required to understand how this variation impacts microbiota and host-directed changes. Better understanding of the immune and metabolic changes associated with protection against rCDI will allow for the design of more targeted therapeutics.
Coated ZnO-NPs demonstrated antibacterial and biofilm-disrupting activities against Cutibacterium acnes in a high-viscosity, skincare-mimicking water-in-oil formulation. They reduced viable biofilm-embedded cell count by more than 100-fold compared to the control formulation. The sebum-exposed in vitro biofilm model provides a practical platform for evaluating anti-biofilm skincare products.
