Bush dogs (Speothos venaticus) are cooperatively breeding South American canids with relatively unstudied behavior. Here, we study a group of zoo-housed bush dogs to investigate the impact of pack structure changes on their collective movements, social hierarchy and social network structure. Data were collected on dominance interactions and group movements within the pack over 10 months, split into three phases: (1) during the pregnancy of the breeding female, (2) post-pup birth, and (3) post-removal of an adult female. Our results indicate that in this pack, bush dogs formed a single social hierarchy with the breeding male as the highest-ranking member, contrasting with a previous study finding separate male and female hierarchies. However, this difference may be due to the physical limitations of the breeding female in our study, caused by pregnancy and old age. Submission behaviors contributed more to social rank than dominance behaviors. Following the pup birth, the linearity and steepness of the social hierarchy and the frequency of submission behaviors in the group increased, while the female that was least related to the breeding female became the lowest ranking group member. The subsequent removal of this low-ranking female had minimal impact on social structure. Higher-ranking individuals initiated more single-file lines, likely facilitating cooperative hunting and group travel. This study contributes valuable insights into the social structure and dynamics of a zoo-housed bush dog group and provides a basis for the use of David's score and social network analysis to monitor bush dog social groups to inform ex-situ management.
Engagement with positive reinforcement training is a non-invasive, easily recorded, and valid indicator of welfare in captive bottlenose dolphins. However, despite the ubiquitousness of training programs in zoo-housed mammals in accredited zoos, this metric has yet to be explored as a welfare indicator in other species. Thus, this pilot study aimed to determine whether engagement with training is a reliable and valid welfare indicator in zoo-housed felids. Using Likert scales, two observers scored the Willingness to Participate, Approach to the trainer, and Focus of three felids housed at Attica Zoological Park (Greece) during 34 training sessions. After each session, behavioral richness and the frequency of expression of behaviors indicative of positive and negative affective states were derived from 2 h of instantaneous focal behavioral observations. Intraclass correlations showed excellent agreement in the two observers' scores for Willingness to Participate, Approach, and Focus during the sessions (all ICC > 0.9). The three facets of engagement with training were strongly interrelated (Spearman correlations, all r > 0.5, all p < 0.01). Further, Willingness to Participate and Focus were significantly positively associated with the frequency of expression of behaviors indicative of a positive affective state (GLMM: p < 0.001) and behavioral richness (GLMM: p = 0.013), respectively. The strength of those associations in our small sample suggests that further research in a larger sample of felids and institutions is warranted to investigate engagement with training as a promising, valid, and reliable positive welfare indicator in zoo-housed felids.
Among neotropical small felids, the Leopardus tigrinus is classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, but studies on reproductive morphology and physiology are scarce for conservation strategies. This study aimed to describe testicular biometry and sperm characteristics of L. tigrinus from Ceará, Brazil, in the Caatinga biome. Four animals (≥ 2.3 ± 0.3 years old; 2.5 ± 0.2 kilograms) were chemically restrained with a combination of dexmedetomidine and ketamine. Testicular parenchyma was assessed by ultrasonography, with volumes calculated using Lambert and ellipsoid formulas. Semen was collected by electroejaculation, and macroscopic (volume, color) and microscopic parameters (concentration, motility, viability, hypoosmotic swelling test) were evaluated. Morphology and morphometry were described, and samples were processed for scanning electron microscopy. Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism software. Results showed that testicular volume calculated by the Lambert and ellipsoid formulas was 3.11 ± 0.21 cm3 and 2.29 ± 0.16 cm3, respectively. Ejaculates had 237.5 ± 89.9 µL volume, 1.4 ± 0.7 × 109 sperm/mL concentration, 55.0 ± 15.4% motility, 3.5 ± 0.3 vigor, 51.8 ± 16.8% viability, 75.0 ± 8.6% hypoosmotic response, and 60.8 ± 10.2% morphologically normal spermatozoa. Morphometric analysis described a total length of 29.50 ± 0.10 µm. Ultrastructural evaluation allowed a more detailed description of the sperm morphology, defining the sperm head of oncillas as oval-shaped, the sperm neck, and the acrosomal regions (equatorial and apical segments). Thus, this study advances knowledge on L. tigrinus reproductive morphophysiology, emphasizing the application of testicular ultrasonography in the species and providing crucial data on sperm characteristics for implementation of reproductive biotechnologies as a conservation strategy.
Public perceptions of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are shaped by the context in which they are viewed. Prior research shows that images of chimpanzees with people or in human-like settings can distort how people perceive their suitability as a pet and their conservation status. This raises questions about how unnatural enrichment provided to zoo-housed chimpanzees might influence public perception of the apes, especially when items resemble human objects. In this study, we investigated how the aesthetic of enrichment-natural versus non-natural-provided to chimpanzees living at the Chattanooga Zoo in Tennessee impacts visitor perceptions of chimpanzee behavior and conservation. Enrichment items were selected to elicit five species-specific behaviors, and they came in natural and non-natural forms for each goal behavior. Each day, chimpanzees received one type of enrichment in their habitat, and adult zoo visitors were invited to complete a survey while observing the apes. We analyzed visitor responses and determined (1) enrichment aesthetic does not impact visitor perceptions of chimpanzee behavior, conservation, or pet suitability, (2) visitors most commonly associate chimpanzees with a conservation status of vulnerable in contrast to their actual status as endangered, and (3) as enrichment objects help visitors consider protecting the natural environment of wild chimpanzees, they show more support for conservation organizations. Our findings provide insight into how enrichment aesthetics may influence visitor perceptions of animals and support broader conservation education goals held by zoos.
The proximate, mineral and microbiological composition of milk from five giraffes from mid lactation to dry-out is reported. This covered the lactation time from nine to 16 months. The composition of milk at approximately 9.4 months lactation consisted of dry matter at 17.7 g/100 g milk made up of 3.4 g/100 g protein, 4.7 g/100 g lactose, 8.8 g/100 g fat, 0.9 g/100 g ash and 0.03 g/100 g NPN. The major minerals consisted of 30.2 mg/100 g Na, 113.5 mg/100 g K, 139.5 mg/100 g Ca, 77.7 mg/100 g P and 0.6 mg/100 g Zn. The gross energy was 119.4 kCal/100 g. At 12 months lactation the dry matter remained unchanged at 17.0 g/100 g, however, the ash and protein as well as Ca, P and Na increased. At 15.1 months lactation, the milk composition changed to 20 g/100 g dry matter consisting of lactose at 0.9 g/100 g, 8.8 g/100 g protein, 3.5 g/100 g fat, 2.2 g/100 g ash, 0.08 g/100 g NPN, 233.2 mg/100 g Na, 121.6 mg/100 g K, 293.2 mg/100 g Ca, 188.9 mg/100 g P, 0.7 mg/100 g Zn and a gross energy of 87.6 kCal/100 g. At 16 months lactation, all the animals tested were completely dry. The microbial quality of the milk was very high, conforming to legal microbial limits of agricultural milk. Lactation stage had a decreasing effect on the total bacteria count and an increasing effect on yeast and mould counts. The warmer months of the year had an increasing effect on the total bacteria count, while the yeast and mould counts declined.
The success of nuclear reprogramming techniques, including the G0/G1 synchronization of somatic cells, depends on species-specific optimization. While roscovitine and serum starvation have been successfully applied in domestic and wild terrestrial mammals, their use in aquatic mammals remains poorly investigated. The development of cellular reprogramming protocols in Antillean manatees, a flagship and endangered aquatic species, represents a promising tool for advancing conservation efforts. This study evaluated the effects of 10 µM roscovitine (12 and 24 h) and serum starvation (0.5% serum for 24 h) on G0/G1 phase synchronization and viability in somatic cells of the Antillean manatee using flow cytometry. Additionally, we assessed cell morphology, viability, and apoptosis through microscopy-based analyses. The results showed that neither serum starvation (68.4%) nor roscovitine treatment (12 h: 84.3%; 24 h: 79.3%) enhanced G0/G1 synchronization compared to the control group (83.4%). Serum starvation significantly reduced the proportion of G0/G1-phase cells compared to the 12 h roscovitine group and the control (p < 0.05). No differences were observed in morphology or viability across groups (p > 0.05). However, extended exposure to roscovitine (24 h) increased apoptotic markers compared to the control group. In summary, although roscovitine (12 h) and serum starvation did not compromise cell viability, neither method effectively induced G0/G1 synchronization under the conditions tested. Studies are needed to elucidate the in vitro behavior of Antillean manatee somatic cells and to optimize protocols for nuclear reprogramming applications.
Tapirs (Tapirus spp.) are large, long-lived herbivores native to Central and South America and Southeast Asia. All species are currently classified as Vulnerable (T. terrestris) or Endangered (other species) in the IUCN SSC Red List. With populations in the wild continuing to decline, the value of ex-situ populations as insurance populations increases. To assess demographic patterns, we evaluated juvenile and adult survivorship trends among the three tapir species (Tapirus bairdii, T. indicus, and T. terrestris) frequently kept in zoos from 1870 to 2024 using Cox proportional hazard models. Survivorship of Baird's tapirs was better than that of the two other species. Overall, both juvenile and adult survivorship has increased significantly. This was expected, given the developments in tapir husbandry over the past decades. Despite significant progress in husbandry practices, important areas for improvement remain, particularly in nutrition. Not all institutions provide optimal diets, which can affect health and longevity. In all three species, we document an increase in the proportion of old age-individuals and a decline in that of juveniles. As tapir survivorship increases and more individuals reach advanced ages, new challenges will arise in using controlled mortality to ensure viable populations.
The gut microbiome is critical for the health and dietary adaptation of African elephants (Loxodonta africana), but how age and rearing strategies influence microbial communities remains unclear. Understanding these factors is essential for improving conservation and captive management practices, particularly given the high mortality rates in formula-fed calves. Using 16S rRNA sequencing and clinical data from 17 African elephants (calves: breastfed n = 3, formula-fed n = 2; adults n = 12), we investigated age-associated differences in gut microbiome composition and explored the potential relationship with rearing practices. Due to the limited sample size, results from formula-fed calves were analyzed as exploratory. Healthy adults were dominated by Bacteroidota, a phylum linked to fiber digestion, and showed higher microbial diversity compared to breastfed calves. Exploratory analysis of formula-fed calves revealed distinct compositional features, including reduced Bacteroidota and Lachnospiraceae and enrichment of Gammaproteobacteria, which co-occurred with clinical signs of diarrhea, growth failure. This study highlights age-associated differences in the gut microbiome of healthy African elephants and suggests that formula-feeding may be associated with altered microbial composition. These findings provide a foundation for future research to optimize rearing protocols for captive elephant calves.
Animal interaction programs (AIPs) are a sub-category of animal-visitor interactions (AVIs) and are increasingly prevalent across accredited zoos worldwide. Although AVIs are being increasingly researched, few studies have explored the welfare implications of AIPs, such as the potential animal welfare impacts of public feedings or public presentations. Bird shows and presentations are among the most2021a advertised AIPs within zoological institutions yet suffer from a lack of empirical studies. This study investigated behavioral and physical measures to assess the welfare of several bird species located at Adelaide Zoo. An ethogram was developed to record behaviors across three comparisons: (1) show days versus non-show days, (2) before and after shows, and (3) show birds versus non-show birds. In addition, feather and body condition scores were recorded and compared across show birds and non-show birds. Multiple comparisons were provided in an attempt to avoid limited and context-specific data, which assisted in a more comprehensive and well-rounded welfare assessment. Show birds demonstrated an increase in abnormal behaviors on show days compared to non-show days, which prompted further comparisons to determine why the increased prevalence of abnormal behaviors was occurring on the days a presentation took place. On presentation days, show birds demonstrated more active, social, and abnormal behaviors pre-show but exhibited an increase in grooming, foraging, and a significant reduction in abnormal behaviors post-show, which could suggest a potential anticipatory effect. In addition, show birds had a closer-to-ideal body condition score and demonstrated significantly less inactive and abnormal behavior compared to non-show birds. The results suggested that public bird shows and presentations have a largely minimal or neutral welfare impact, however, there may be a potential enriching aspect of bird shows and presentations.
An investigation was conducted into the causes of morbidity and mortality in a breeding colony of Daurian pikas (Ochotona dauurica) housed at the Minnesota Zoo. Gross necropsy and histopathology records from all animals that died between 2011 and 2016 were reviewed to identify causes of death and associated comorbidities. Post-mortem tissue mineral panel data were also evaluated. A total of 69 necropsies were performed during the study period, with 30 cases having complete histopathology available for analysis. No animals survived to the geriatric age class. The most common cause of mortality was systemic abscessation (n = 11) secondary to a Gram-negative, non-fermenting, rod-shaped bacterium identified as Castellaniella sp. Other confirmed causes of death included traumatic hemorrhage (n = 4), hepatic necrosis (n = 2), hemorrhagic enteritis (n = 1), and myocardial necrosis (n = 1). Hemothorax occurred in two animals within 24 h of venipuncture. Frequently observed comorbidities included cachexia of undetermined origin (n = 18), cutaneous ascariasis (n = 8), oxyuriasis (n = 8), coccidiosis (n = 5), dental malocclusion (n = 4), hepatic hemosiderosis (n = 3), and small intestinal non-hemolytic Escherichia coli infection (n = 3). Elevated tissue iron concentrations were also detected in several individuals, suggesting potential species sensitivity to iron overload. This review provides important baseline data on morbidity and mortality in managed Daurian pika populations and highlights the need for further research into their husbandry, nutrition, and medical management to improve welfare and survival under human care.
There has been a growing interest in identifying alternative feed ingredients and additives for aquaculture. Although seahorses generally do not accept commercial aquafeeds, among the residues of shrimp processing, the legs-or pleopods-resemble small crustaceans and may be accepted as frozen prey by adult animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the nutritional composition and lipid profile of marine shrimp (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri) pleopods (Plop) and a conventional food item, shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) post-larvae (Ptla), and to assess their effects on the performance of adult seahorses (Hippocampus reidi). In addition, the effects of pleopod as a single food source on body reserves and reproductive potential were evaluated. The diets were assessed for caloric content, proximate composition, and lipid profile. Twenty adult specimens of H. reidi were subjected to a 90-day trial to assess performance, and a subset of 10 individuals was further evaluated for histological parameters. Plop exhibited a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) with chains shorter than 20 carbons compared to Ptla, while both diets presented adequate levels of highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs; chains of 20 carbons or more). In this study, Plop resulted in improved animal performance. More than 80% of the individuals evaluated exhibited medium to high body reserves, along with a progressive increase in hepatocyte vacuolation and in both the size and number of vitellogenic oocytes. Considering its easy accessibility, low commercial cost, and the fact that Plop does not require culturing systems, it represents a promising alternative feed resource for ornamental aquaculture and public aquaria.
Nascent captive rearing programs often lack empirical data to inform the development of husbandry practices. This lack of data, especially for density and food availability recommendations, can lead to suboptimal husbandry standards that can impair growth or survival. We conducted two experiments with captive-reared Eastern Hellbenders (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) to explore the effects of husbandry conditions on growth. In the first experiment, we examined growth after 7 months when reared at three densities (low, medium, or high). We found no differences in growth among the treatments. In the second experiment, we examined the interactive effects of density and food availability on growth over 8 months. The experiment was a 3 × 3 factorial design with three densities (low, medium, and high) and three food availability treatments (low, medium, and high). We found a significant effect of food availability on growth during the experiment, but no effect of density or interactive effects. Averaged across the density treatments, we found that growth was 26%-46% greater in the high food availability treatment compared to the low and medium food availability treatments. This work suggests that food is the major factor limiting captive-reared Hellbender growth and that increasing rearing density to the tested levels does not negatively impact growth. Implementing these changes may result in larger, more robust Hellbenders and increase the success of reintroduction programs.
Amphibians are among the most threatened vertebrates, with 41% of species at risk of extinction due to factors such as habitat loss, pollution, and climate change. One such species, the Eastern Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis), has experienced significant population declines, particularly in Indiana. Conservation efforts, including captive breeding and rearing, have been initiated to mitigate these losses. However, the rearing conditions that optimize the growth of this species in captivity are understudied. Higher temperatures are known to increase amphibian growth, but many captive rearing facilities rear Eastern Hellbenders at relatively low temperatures (e.g., 16°C). Our goal was to assess the effects of rearing temperature on Eastern Hellbender growth under captive rearing conditions. Eastern Hellbenders (N = 207) were reared at two temperatures (16°C and 21°C) at the Indianapolis Zoo. Every 8 weeks from February 2023 to July 2024, we collected mass and total body length on each individual to assess changes over time. Contrary to predictions, we found no evidence that higher temperatures increased the growth (mass or total length) of Eastern Hellbenders. This suggests that Eastern Hellbender growth is unlikely to be influenced by the rearing temperatures used at most captive facilities. These results challenge assumptions about the role of temperature in captive rearing outcomes and suggest that future research focus on other variables (e.g., diet, density) that might enhance captive-rearing efficiency.
Coincident with the non-invasive collection of samples from free-ranging, unmarked animals come issues of sample anonymity. Weddell seals are an ecologically important Antarctic species, but their distribution overlaps humans and their life-history behaviours limit direct observation. Faecal deposits on sea ice provide a valuable, non-invasive window into their physiology and health, but meaningful interpretation hinges on determining sample sex. Historically, sex-typing of faecal samples has relied on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect sex-specific genetic markers. An alternative approach involves quantifying faecal steroid metabolites (FSM), which may offer a more cost-effective method while also yielding broader physiological insights. In this study, we used the standard PCR approach to establish sample sex and then evaluated the ability of FSMs to discriminate between sexes. PCR of the SRY and ZFX/ZFY loci successfully sex-typed 96% of the samples collected. Of the range of predictive models tested, the generalised linear model (glm) with the lowest AIC value, that included the main effects of untransformed steroid metabolite levels, predicted sample sex from EIA of FSM with sex established by PCR in 81 of 89 samples tested (91% accuracy). Log transformations of steroid levels and increased model complexity only marginally improved prediction accuracy to 93%. In conjunction with understanding the broader endocrinology of a species, the quantification of steroid metabolites by EIA serves as an alternative means of accurately sex-typing anonymous faecal samples across an increasing range of vertebrate taxa.
Lemurs are severely threatened due to anthropogenic habitat loss and climate change. Therefore, understanding how lemurs adapt their diets to novel habitats is critically important for maintaining healthy wild populations and effectively managing captive populations. Here we present two case studies of the dietary and ranging behavior of semi-free ranging ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta; two groups) and red ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra; two groups) at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve managed by the Lemur Conservation Foundation. We found that ring-tailed lemurs spent 64.5% of their time resting and 13.4% foraging and feeding. The most important food types for ring-tailed lemurs were mature leaves (55.9%) and detritus (12.6%); however, they consumed nine other food types, including living animals (0.7%). Ring-tailed lemurs consumed 14 plant species, 9 of which have not previously been reported. Home ranges for the two ring-tailed lemur groups were 0.18 ha and 0.20 ha, representing 9.7% and 11.4% of their forested enclosures. Ring-tailed lemurs foraged primarily within one meter from the ground. Red ruffed lemurs spent 44.9% resting and 29.6% foraging and feeding. The most important food types for red ruffed lemurs were young leaves (32.9%), mature leaves (22.0%), flower buds (15.7%), and unripe fruit (11.9%) with only three other food types consumed. Red ruffed lemurs consumed 43 different species, all of which have not been previously reported. Home ranges for the two red ruffed lemur groups were 0.83 ha and 0.87 ha representing 40.8% and 55.9% of their forested enclosures. Red ruffed lemurs also foraged primarily within one meter from the ground. This is one of very few published studies on semi-free ranging ring-tailed lemurs outside Madagascar and the first dietary study on semi-free ranging red ruffed lemurs outside Madagascar. We hope that these results can be used to inform management practices among captive lemur populations, other primates, and other taxa living in novel environments.
Feeder animals-live animals such as mice, fish and invertebrates used as feed for other species-often far exceed the number of exhibit animals at zoological institutions. While there are extensive species-specific guidelines for the care of exhibit animals, the guidelines that exist for animals used as feed are brief and offer relatively few species-specific recommendations. This state of affairs increases the risk of compromised welfare-which is especially concerning given growing evidence of sentience in fish and some invertebrates. As zoological institutions continue to advance toward evidence-based, welfare-focused practices, it is imperative that institutions recognize and address the welfare of feeder animals. Current and future generations of scientists need to focus on validating welfare indicators for common feeder species, developing welfare assessments for feeder animals, and routinely monitoring and refining practices to enhance the welfare of feeder animals. Given the sheer volume of feeder animals used across institutions, even modest improvements could have a profound cumulative impact on animal welfare.
More than a third of the 202 identified chameleon species are classified as "vulnerable" or "critically endangered". No data is available regarding the life expectancy of chameleons kept in zoos. The objectives of this study were to determine the sex and species distribution of chameleons kept in zoological institutions, and to assess their reproductive status and life expectancy by sex and species. Distribution and reproduction data of 203 zoos were collected through the Species360's Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS) database. Historical demographic data (1980-2024) of chameleons kept in zoos was also collected. A Bayesian survival trajectory analysis was performed to determine the average life expectancy at birth by sex and species for seven chameleon species with more than 70 individuals of each sex. In 2021, 17.8% (36/202) of all identified chameleon species were represented in ZIMS-registered zoos, with panther (Furcifer pardalis; 36%) and veiled (Chamaeleo calyptratus; 27%) chameleons being the most common. Eight species of chameleons were reproduced in zoos, with Jackson's chameleons (Trioceros jacksonii) accounting for 51% of the reported births. Males were more common than females in panther (p < 0.0001) chameleons, while females were more prevalent in common (Chamaeleo chamaeleon; p = 0.003) and Parson's (Calumma parsoni; p = 0.03) chameleons. Veiled and panther chameleons displayed a significant male survival advantage. This study suggests the need to implement changes to promote the conservation of Chamaeleonidae in zoos, including increasing the female:male ratio since males live longer than females in certain species.
Historically focused on training and enrichment, behavioral husbandry has become a standard fixture in zoos and aquariums. Enrichment planning has explicitly incorporated species' natural history since its inception. Despite this, many enrichment strategies have traditionally been developed by starting with items to be placed in animal habitats, with common practices of evaluating effectiveness centering on item-based checklists. In recent years, discussions among behavioral husbandry professionals have shifted toward a move from item-based to behavior-based strategies. Using this behavior-first approach relies on a broad view of the behavioral needs of animals. Focusing on the function and topography of behaviors may be useful for programs making this shift. Here we describe a behavior-first goal-setting process that considers function and topography, tools to aid the process, and examples of practical implementation. In addition to sparking different behavior-first ideas during the planning stage, this process can also provide a foundation for high-quality evaluation of the results of enrichment and other behavior-focused strategies.
In captivity, ursids are more susceptible to displaying abnormal behaviors due to the seasonal variation in their particular biology concerning food resources, home range size, denning, or reproduction. We studied five brown bear females housed in two centers: Barcelona Zoo and Vallcalent Wildlife Recovery Centre. The data sampling involved a multi-focal and continuous recording of the duration, interval, rate, and location of abnormal behaviors. This study investigated the relationships among display and location of abnormal behaviors and multiple environmental factors: the season, time of day, temperature, humidity, wind speed and number of visitors through the analysis of generalized linear models. The observations showed a high individual variability of the abnormal behaviors displayed: one female displayed bar licking and swaying simultaneously, three other females displayed only one type -log biting, head-tossing and pacing-, while another female did not display any type. The duration of log biting was associated with season and temperature. The rate of head-tossing was associated with time of day, its interval was associated with season, time of day, temperature, humidity, and number of visitors; meanwhile, its location was associated with all environmental factors. The bar licking location was associated with temperature. The swaying duration was associated with time of day, humidity, and wind speed; meanwhile, its location was associated with temperature. These females tended to display abnormal behaviors in specific places of the enclosure. For the welfare of bears in captivity, it is crucial to disentangle the relationship between current and past single or multiple environmental and individual factors and the individuality of abnormal behaviors.
Modern zoos have increasingly positioned themselves as conservation organizations. However, it is unclear to what extent conservation professionals from other types of organizations view zoos' roles in conservation. This research explored the perceptions of 116 conservation professionals to understand how they view zoos in the broader conservation context. We examined how participants perceived the current role of zoos in conservation and their beliefs regarding how zoos can increase their conservation impacts. Education was described most frequently as both a current role and an important way to increase impact. Ex situ conservation was another frequently described current role of zoos, although fewer participants suggested this as a means to increase impact. Instead, suggestions included supporting in situ efforts and collaborating with non-zoo conservation organizations and local communities. By understanding the perceptions that non-zoo conservationists hold toward zoo conservation efforts, zoos can better identify ways to improve collaborations, communication, and capacity sharing with other organizations to increase our collective conservation impact.
