Plant cells communicate to regulate various biological processes involved in growth, development, and immune responses against various environmental stressors. This communication involves multi ‘omics’ layers and operates through various regulatory networks and signaling cascades within cell. Notably, recent developments in single-cell and spatial omics technologies have transformed plant stress biology by revealing the various molecular states of individual cells as well as their spatial arrangement. Therefore, this review delineates recent scientific advancements in single-cell and spatial omics technologies as well as key breakthroughs in plant defense research. Looking forward, we offer a prospect of challenges and road-map of future opportunities that will introduce broad adoption of single-cell and spatial omics with revolutionary perspectives in developing climate-smart future-crops.
The productivity of major cereal crops such as wheat, rice, barley, and maize is affected by various abiotic stresses including drought, heat, and salinity. Aquaporins (AQPs) are the transmembrane water channels that are members of the major intrinsic protein (MIP) superfamily. They play a major role in mediating plant water relations and mitigating the impacts of stress. This review addresses the structural, functional and regulatory roles of AQPs enhancing abiotic stress tolerance in cereal crops. On the basis of phylogenetic distribution and subcellular occurrence, AQPs are classified into five subfamilies: plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs), tonoplast intrinsic proteins (TIPs), nodulin 26-like proteins (NIPs), small basic intrinsic proteins (SIPs), and uncharacterized intrinsic proteins (XIPs). Under abiotic stress conditions, AQP-mediated water flux preserves membrane integrity and selected NIP and TIP isoforms further transport reactive oxygen species (ROS) for cellular signaling. AQP activity is fine-tuned at transcriptional and post-translational levels through phosphorylation, pH, calcium and hormonal signalling, providing rapid and reversible responses to environmental fluctuation. Advances in biotechnology have enabled the manipulation of AQPs through marker-assisted selection (MAS), genome editing, and transgenic techniques. AQP-linked markers identified by genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and QTL mapping provide opportunities for targeted breeding programs. Collectively, an integrated understanding of AQPs diversity, regulation and engineering offers a promising route toward developing climate-resilient cereal cultivars to safeguard global food security.
Saline-alkali stress poses a significant threat to global agricultural productivity, necessitating the development of stress-resilient crop varieties. In this study, a comprehensive multi-omics approach was employed to elucidate the adaptive mechanisms of triticale under single salt (SS), mixed alkali (MB), and mixed saline-alkali (MSA) stress conditions. Through the evaluation of 178 germplasms, The cultivar M25 was identified as stress-tolerant, whereas QT-22 was identified as stress-sensitive. M25 exhibited higher germination rate, enhanced antioxidant capacity, and sustained photosynthetic performance. Comparative analyses of differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in M25 and QT-22 under single, paired, and combined stress treatments (SS, MB, and MSA) were performed separately. Transcriptome analysis identified 1,200 DEGs, while 82 DAMs were commonly detected across all three stress conditions. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) further identified 15 hub genes associated with stress-responsive modules. Integration of 14 key metabolites with candidate genes revealed coordinated regulation of photosynthesis, ROS scavenging, lipid remodeling, and secondary metabolism. Notably, M25 exhibited stronger gene–metabolite network connectivity than QT-22, indicating a more integrated stress response system. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) validation of representative genes confirmed the reliability of transcriptomic data. This study established molecular targets for breeding, standardized phenotyping protocols (200 mM SS, 150 mM MB, 250 mM MSA), and a conceptual framework for the development of saline-alkali-resilient crop varieties. Overall, this study advances the understanding of plant stress adaptation and offers practical insights for crop improvement in marginal environments.
Plant acclimation to environmental stress involves the coordinated regulation of phytohormone (PH) biosynthesis, antioxidant enzymatic activities, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and the accumulation of non-enzymatic metabolites. Natural biostimulants represent sustainable tools to enhance crop resilience; however, their mechanistic pathways remain poorly understood. Cucumis melo L. is an economically important horticultural crop highly susceptible to high temperatures, which disrupts hormonal balance and redox homeostasis, ultimately reducing productivity. This study elucidates the specific role of an aqueous extract from Ilex paraguariensis A.St.-Hil. (IP) in modulating the hormonal, antioxidant, and photosynthetic systems of melon (Cucumis melo L.) under thermal stress. Our results demonstrate that IP application triggers a robust metabolic reprogramming: PH levels in heat-stressed plants increased by up to 82
Cultivated cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L. var. altilis) is a Mediterranean food crop of the Asteraceae family that is well adapted to environmental stress. In this study, we aimed to uncover the features of biochemical adaptations by reducing plant complexity and employing cultivated cell cultures as a model system. We exposed cardoon calli to chilling and salinity. The results showed significant proline accumulation under both stress conditions, with upregulation of the Pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthase (P5CS) and Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase (P5CR) key genes, in proline biosynthesis. Oxidative damage was evident, as indicated by elevated H2O2 levels, only at high doses and prolonged saline imposition. Enzymatic analysis of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) revealed metabolic reprogramming at the crossroads between primary and specialized metabolism in response to stress. GC-TOF-MS profiling identified 434 Differential Accumulated Metabolites (DAMs) upon stress, including organic acids, amino acids, sugars, alcohols, and polyphenols. A higher metabolic rearrangement was accompanied by increased levels of osmoprotectants such as organic acids (e.g., galactaric and galactonic acids) and amino acids (e.g., proline, phenylalanine, homoserine, and aspartate). Finally, we discuss our findings by focusing on how stress-induced metabolic reprogramming in cardoon calli, underpins the growth–defense trade-off and contributes to stress resilience.
Wheat grain filling is a major determinant of grain weight and yield, but its regulation under nitrogen (N) stress remains poorly understood. To investigate this, field and pot experiments were conducted under N-stress conditions using two contrasting wheat genotypes, Chotilerma (CL; small-seeded) and HB-208 (HB; bold-seeded). Although both genotypes showed similar reductions in nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and grain yield under N stress, HB exhibited a greater decline in grain weight and grain volume, indicating poor grain-filling efficiency. Transcriptome analysis during the active grain-filling period (2–5 weeks after anthesis) revealed distinct molecular responses between the genotypes. Only 3
Dipteryx odorata, the Tonka Bean tree, is an Amazonian tree species of high ecological and economic importance, widely used in reforestation and restoration programs. This study evaluated the effects of exogenous application of 24-epibrassinolide (24-EBL) on the morphological and metabolic development of young seedlings of D. odorata cultivated under semi-controlled nursery conditions with 50
Aluminum (Al) toxicity is a major limiting factor for plants, but its effects in hydroponic systems, particularly on chlorophyll and the photosystem, remain poorly understood. Among horticultural crops, lettuce is notable for its production versatility in diverse systems, which may be susceptible to exposure to this metal. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of Al on the growth, tissue accumulation, chloroplastidic pigments, and photosystem of lettuce grown in a hydroponic system. For this purpose, lettuce plants (cv. Regina) were exposed to 0, 50, 100, 250, and 500 µM of aluminum nitrate in Hoagland solution. Tissue aluminum content, growth parameters, chloroplastidic pigments, and chlorophyll a fluorescence were evaluated from the 42nd to the 70th day after seedling emergence (DAE). Al accumulated preferentially in the roots. Translocation to the leaves was highest at 100 µM and decreased at higher concentrations. Growth was initially inhibited (day 42) at the highest concentrations, followed by a significant increase in biomass and leaf number (from day 56 onward) compared to the control. However, Al stress caused a progressive and dose-dependent reduction in chlorophyll a, b, and carotenoid contents. Fluorescence analysis on the 70th day revealed a drastic drop in photochemical efficiency under light (Fv’/Fm’) and the vitality index (Rfd), with an increase in non-photochemical quenching (qN). Although the lettuce showed increased biomass, possibly due to the fertilizing effect of nitrate (NO3), this growth occurred at the expense of photosynthetic health, compromising photochemical efficiency and pigment content.
Plants continuously adjust their growth, metabolism, and stress responses under fluctuating nutrient availability and environmental conditions. Post-translational modifications (PTMs) play essential roles in coordinating these adaptive processes; however, the contribution of O-glycosylation to nutrient-responsive signaling in plants remains insufficiently understood. This review highlights the emerging roles of O-fucosylation and O-GlcNAcylation, mediated by the glycosyltransferases SPINDLY (SPY) and SECRET AGENT (SEC), as central regulators of nutrient and energy sensing networks in plants. This review discusses how these modifications integrate carbon, nitrogen, and sugar signaling with key regulatory pathways, including SnRK1, TOR, and hormone-associated signaling cascades, to modulate plant growth, development, and stress adaptation. Emphasis is placed on the dynamic crosstalk between O-glycosylation and other PTMs, such as phosphorylation and ubiquitination, in regulating protein stability, signaling specificity, and metabolic homeostasis under changing environmental conditions. Recent advances in glycoproteomic approaches, proximity-labeling proteomics, CRISPR-based genome editing, and multi-omics integration have significantly accelerated the identification and functional characterization of O-glycosylated proteins in plants. From an applied perspective, we further discuss the potential of targeting O-glycosylation pathways to improve nutrient-use efficiency, stress resilience, and sustainable crop productivity under climate change scenarios. Collectively, this review provides an updated framework for understanding the regulatory significance of O-glycosylation in plant nutrient signaling and highlights its emerging potential in future crop improvement strategies.
Light intensity is important for the growth of medicinal plants and the accumulation of active ingredients. This study integrated physiological and transcriptomic analyses to investigate the effects of six light intensities (25, 50, 100, 200, 400, and 600 µmol·m-2·s-1) on the morphology, physiology, and medicinal active components of Dendrobium nobile Lindl (D. nobile). The results indicated that 200 µmol·m-2·s-1 was the optimum light intensity, significantly promoting plant height (33.11
Climate change poses a significant threat to global food security by adversely affecting chlorophyll content, photosystem II activity, grain yield, and reproductive development in finger millet, highlighting the need for functional genomics approaches in crop improvement. Despite extensive studies in major cereals, the molecular components and regulatory mechanisms underlying brassinosteroid (BR) biosynthesis and signalling remain unexplored in finger millet. This study aimed to determine how 24-epibrassinolide (EBR) enhances thermotolerance in finger millet seedlings by assessing its effects on physiological performance, antioxidant defence and by uncovering the underlying molecular mechanisms through transcriptomic reprogramming of stress-responsive genes. The findings revealed that elevated BR levels or signalling sustained survival, chlorophyll retention, and root development under heat stress by activating antioxidant defences and orchestrating transcriptomic reprogramming of stress-responsive pathways. Approximately 8 Gb of high-quality data were generated, assembling into 10,571 and 13,494 transcripts for heat-stressed control (HSControl) and heat-stressed EBR-treated (HSEBR), respectively. Functional annotation captured 75–88
Developing dwarf plant ideotypes is a crucial strategy for optimizing plant architecture for high-density planting, thereby augmenting productivity. Dominant DELLA mutants confer short plant stature and have been utilized to improve the harvest index since the ‘Green Revolution’. In this study, we unravelled a novel polymorphism in the maize DELLA gene, dwarf8 (d8), by characterizing a set of nine wild-type and one mutant inbreds. Sequencing the 4651-bp-long d8 gene revealed a single exon, with the mutant allele harbouring a unique G-to-A transition (SNP_1458), resulting in a glycine-to-arginine substitution within the highly conserved DELLA domain. Sequence and motif enrichment analysis of 185 orthologues and paralogues further supported glycine as a highly conserved amino acid within the DELLA domain. Genetic and molecular analysis of 48 diverse inbred lines, using eight InDels and an SNP polymorphism (SNP_1458), revealed 19 distinct d8 haplotypes (hap1 to hap19), with the mutant allele included in hap1. To streamline molecular breeding, we developed and validated two breeder-friendly functional markers, viz., (i) allele-specific SNP (MGU-D8mutSNP1458) and (ii) CAPS marker (MGU-D8mutCAPS) specific to the G-to-A mutation to effectively differentiate wild-type and mutant alleles. Genotyping of F1 and F2 progenies revealed that the SNP mutation was semi-dominant, as heterozygotes (D8d8) exhibited a semi-dwarf plant architecture, while homozygotes (D8D8) exhibited a dwarf phenotype. The identification of this novel SNP (SNP_1458) and the development of cost-effective functional markers are of great significance for breeding programmes aimed at developing short-statured maize hybrids. These maize hybrids possess great potential to meet global productivity demands through high-density planting.
Soil salinization threatens agriculture, making the development of salt-tolerant soybean varieties crucial for utilizing saline-alkaline soils. This study established a screening system using cv Weidou 10 (WD10) and its EMS-mutagenized derivatives treated with gradient NaCl (0, 100, 125, 150, or 200 mmol L− 1 (mM) ). Salt stress index (SSI) of six seedling growth traits was calculated for dose-response analysis. Only 150 mM NaCl produced moderate salt stress and distinct genotypic divergence and was confirmed as the screening concentration for this mutant population. 18 EMS-mutagenized accessions from WD10 were screened, and three germplasms (10-96-4, 10-82-10, 10-70-10) exhibited better salt performance across growth stages, with higher SPAD and nitrogen content, elevated peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, reduced relative conductivity and malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Expressions of salt-stress-related genes (Na+/H+ antiporter (GmNHX1), chloride channel (GmCLC1), tonoplast intrinsic protein (GmTIP1), salt overly sensitive (GmSOS1), GmWRKY142, GmWRKY89) were significantly upregulated in the three tolerant lines. Further investigation revealed that GmWRKY142 and GmWRKY89 were upregulated under salt stress, localized to the nucleus, and possessed transcriptional activation activity. Their overexpression in Arabidopsis improved salt tolerance via promoting germination, root elongation, antioxidant capacity and ion transporter gene expression. In conclusion, we screened elite salt-tolerant germplasms, and revealed that GmWRKY142 and GmWRKY89 enhanced salt tolerance by regulating antioxidant and ion homeostasis pathways, offering genetic materials for soybean salt-tolerance breeding.
Monochromatic blue (MB) light has shown potential to stimulate rooting of cuttings acclimated in indoor controlled environments but often leads to excessive shoot elongation. Our objective was to compare shoot and root growth and morphology of lavender (Lavandula) cuttings acclimated indoors under MB or broadband white (W) light-emitting diode (LED) fixtures, and to compare results with cuttings acclimated in a greenhouse under mist. A secondary objective was to compare responses of cuttings treated with or without daminozide (Dz), applied at 1000 mg∙L–1 to half of the cuttings as a height-control plant-growth regulator (PGR). Stem-tip cuttings of ‘Phenomenal’ (Lavandula × intermedia Emeric ex Loisel) and ‘La Diva Vintage Violet’ (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) (‘Violet’) were acclimated for 14 and 21 d, respectively, under a photosynthetic photon flux density of 100 µmol·m⁻2·s⁻1 provided for 24 h·d⁻1 [daily light integral (DLI) of 8.6 mol·m⁻2·d⁻1] indoors, or in a greenhouse with a DLI of 11.4 mol·m⁻2·d⁻1 provided by sunlight. A greenhouse finishing phase lasting 14 d was then conducted to evaluate carryover effects of all treatments applied during the acclimation phase. In general, cuttings rooted better in the greenhouse than indoors, suggesting that when environmental conditions are moderate in the greenhouse, indoor acclimation may not be warranted for lavender propagation. For cuttings acclimated indoors, MB light stimulated shoot elongation of ‘Phenomenal’, but not of ‘Violet’, showing a species-specific response. However, W light tended to increase leaf number, leaf area, and shoot dry mass (DM) of both species, suggesting a more favorable light environment for shoot growth and development than MB light. Although slight increases were measured under MB compared with W light for root length, root DM, and root mass fraction (RMF), these effects generally were limited to cuttings that did not receive a Dz spray. Furthermore, although spraying Dz effectively helped maintain compact cuttings, it reduced leaf number and shoot DM by 8
Autoallelopathy refers to the inhibitory effect of plant-derived compounds on seeds or seedlings of the same species and may influence germination and early establishment. In this study, we evaluated the potential autoallelopathic effect of the funicular pulp of Pilosocereus catingicola subsp. salvadorensis on the germination of its own seeds. We collected fruits from 20 individuals belonging to Caatinga and Restinga populations during the dry and rainy seasons. We characterized the polar and nonpolar metabolic profiles of the funicular pulp by GC-MS and prepared extracts using hexane, ethyl acetate, methanol, and water. We then evaluated the potential autoallelopathic effects of these extracts through germination bioassays using seeds of the same species. We annotated 74 metabolites polar and 52 nonpolar. We found that seasonality was the main factor structuring both metabolic fractions, whereas differences between populations were weaker and were not supported by robust model validation. During the rainy season, population differences in the polar fraction were mainly associated with carbohydrate metabolism, central carbon metabolism, and amino acid metabolism. After FDR correction, we detected no significantly different metabolic pathways between populations during the dry season. The hexane and ethyl acetate reduced germination capacity, speed, and synchrony and delayed germination in a concentration-dependent manner. At concentrations of 1.0 and 2.0 mg mL− 1, these extracts completely inhibited the germination of seeds produced during the rainy season. Under controlled laboratory conditions, our results demonstrate that seasonality influences both the metabolic profile of the funicular pulp and the magnitude of its inhibitory effect on germination.
Abiotic factors profoundly regulate plant tissue morphogenesis and secondary metabolism, yet their synergistic optimization remains underexplored for endangered geophytes. Here, we delineate the interplay of temperature (15 °C 25 °C), photoperiod (16/8 h light/dark vs. continuous dark), sucrose (3.0
Roots play an important role in desiccation tolerance (DT) by sensing soil water deficit and initiating protective responses throughout the plant. In this study, the DT fern Oeosporangium elegans was collected from rock crevices of exposed inselberg rocky habitats at Devarayana Durga region during the monsoon season and used to investigate root responses under hydration (H), desiccation (D), and rehydration (R) conditions. The relative water content (RWC) of the O. elegans whole plant at the D stage was found to be 14.2
Global warming poses significant concerns of rising temperatures that may lead to significant yield reduction in agricultural crops. Seeds of legume crops, in particular, are highly vulnerable to high temperatures and heat stress. High temperatures during the flowering and pod-forming stage are responsible for a reasonable drop in the quality and quantity of legume seeds. This review provides insights into the negative impact of heat stress on legume crops and the strategies to mitigate the same. Prolonged exposure to high temperatures has been negatively influences various physiological and biochemical processes in legume crops like leaf RWC (relative water content), stomatal conductance, photosynthetic machinery, ROS (reactive oxygen species) generation, source-sink relations, plant growth regulators, phenology, and reproductive biology. However, various approaches are being practiced to mitigate the harmful effects of heat stress on legume crops like exogenous application of macro and micronutrients, adopting relay cropping and normal sowing time, promoting conventional breeding techniques, adopting mutation breeding, and using genetic engineering technology to transform the plants. In order to improve heat tolerance in legume crops, future research should focus on uncovering the underlying genetic, biochemical, and physiological mechanisms that enable the crop to tolerate high temperatures.
Early spring low-temperature freezing injury significantly restricts the yield formation of Prunus sibirica. Delaying flowering to mitigate frost damage has emerged as a critical strategy. Melatonin (MT) is recognized for its role in regulating flowering time in plants; however, its regulatory mechanism in P. sibirica remains unclear. In this study, 8-year-old P. sibirica clones were treated with exogenous MT at concentrations of 200, 600, and 1000 µmol/L through spraying to investigate MT’s regulatory role. The results demonstrated that treatment with 600 µmol/L MT delayed flowering by three days. Under this treatment, ethylene (ETH) content peaked at 6.52 ng/g during the mid-stage of flower bud development, representing a 4.99
Manganese (Mn) is an essential micronutrient for plants, serving as a critical cofactor in fundamental processes such as photosynthesis, oxidative stress defense, and cell wall biosynthesis. However, manganese bioavailability in soils is highly dependent on pH, leading to a dual challenge in plant nutrition: deficiency in alkaline soils and toxicity in acidic soils. This review systematically elucidates the physiological roles of Mn2+ and the profound impacts of its imbalance on plant growth. We synthesize the sophisticated adaptive strategies plants employ to maintain Mn2+ homeostasis, spanning morphological adjustments, physiological reconfigurations, and molecular regulations. Under Mn2+ deficiency, plants enhance acquisition through root architecture remodeling and upregulation of high-affinity transporters, while optimizing internal utilization via prioritization and remobilization. Conversely, Mn2+ excess triggers a multi-layered defense network, including antioxidant activation, sequestration of Mn2+ in cell walls and vacuoles, efflux transport, chelation by organic ligands, and extensive metabolic reprogramming. Central to this homeostasis is a recently elucidated calcium (Ca2⁺) signaling network that orchestrates the activity of key transporters like NRAMP1 and MTP8 via phosphorylation, fine-tuning Mn2+ uptake and compartmentalization. We further discuss exogenous mitigation strategies, such as nutrient application and microbial remediation, and propose future research directions, including the identification of Mn2+-specific sensors and transporters, and the targeted breeding of Mn2+-efficient or Mn2+-tolerant plants. This comprehensive overview provides a theoretical foundation for enhancing crop resilience and phytoremediation potential in Mn2+-fluctuating environments. A novel Ca2⁺ signaling module is a master regulator of manganese homeostasis. Plants deploy integrated strategies—from sequestration to reprogramming—against Mn stress. Mn tolerance varies from sensitive crops to hyperaccumulators (> 17,000 mg kg⁻1). Manganese is both an essential plant micronutrient and a toxic stressor. Our synthesis guides breeding of resilient crops and Mn-phytoremediation.
